CELL STRUCTURE

AND FUNCTIONS
 OBJECTIVES
 Description and explanation of
cell, tissue, organ and system.
 General characteristics of cell.
 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
 Membranous and non
membranous structure of Cell.
 Function of different cell
organelles.
 Introduction:
All the living things are composed of cells. A single
cell is the smallest unit that has all the
characteristics of life.
Cell is defined as the structural and functional unit
of the living body.
Cells are the building blocks of the body, providing
structure for the body’s tissues and organs,
ingesting nutrients and converting them to energy,
and performing specialized functions. Cells also
contain the body’s hereditary code that controls the
substances synthesized by the cells and permits
them to make copies of themselves.
General Characteristics of Cell
Each cell in the body:
1.Needs nutrition and oxygen.
2.Produces its own energy necessary for its growth,
repair and other activities.
3.Eliminates carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes.
4. Maintains the medium, i.e. the environment for its
Survival.
5. Shows immediate response to the entry of invaders
like bacteria or toxic substances into the body.
6.Reproduces by division. There are some exceptions
like neuron, which do not reproduce.
TISSUE
Tissue is defined as the group of cells having similar
function. There are many types of tissues in the body.
All the tissues are classified into four major types which
are called the primary tissues. The primary tissues
include:
1. Muscle tissue (skeletal muscle, smooth muscle and
cardiac muscle)
2. Nervous tissue (neurons and supporting cells)
3. Epithelial tissue (squamous, columnar and cuboidal
epithelial cells)
4. Connective tissue (connective tissue proper,
cartilage, bone and blood).
ORGAN
An organ is defined as the structure that is formed
by two or more primary types of tissues, which
execute the functions of the organ. Some organs
are composed of all the four types of primary
tissues.
The organs are of two types,
Tubular or hollow organs and
Compact or parenchymal organs.
Some of the organs in the body are brain, heart,
lungs, stomach, intestine, liver, gallbladder,
pancréas, kidneys, endocrine glands, etc.
SYSTEM
Group of organs that work together to carry out specific
functions of the body.
Each system performs a specific function. For example
Digestive system is concerned with digestion of food particles.
Excretory system eliminates unwanted substances.
Cardiovascular system is responsible for transport of
substances between the organs.
Respiratory system is concerned with the supply of oxygen and
removal of carbon dioxide.
Reproductive system is involved in the reproduction of species.
Endocrine system is concerned with growth of the body and
regulation and maintenance of normal life.
Musculoskeletal system is responsible for stability and
movements of the body.
Nervous system controls the locomotion and other activities
including the intellectual functions.
ORGANIZATION OF THE CELL:

A typical cell, as seen by the light

microscope, is shown in Figure .
Its two major parts are the nucleus and
the cytoplasm.
The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm
by a nuclear membrane, and the cytoplasm is
separated from the surrounding fluids by a
cell membrane, also called the plasma
membrane.
The different substances that make up the cell are
collectively called protoplasm. Protoplasm is composed
mainly of five basic substances: water, electrolytes, proteins,
lipids, and carbohydrates.
Water:
The principal fluid medium of the cell is water,
which is present in most cells, except for fat cells, in a
concentration of 70 to 85 percent. Many cellular chemicals
are dissolved in the water.
Electrolytes:
Important ions in the cell include potassium, magnesium,
phosphate, sulfate, bicarbonate, and smaller quantities of
sodium, chloride, and calcium.
The ions provide inorganic chemicals for cellular reactions
and also are necessary for operation of some of the
cellular control mechanisms.
Proteins:
After water, the most abundant substances in most
cells are proteins, which normally constitute 10 to 20
percent of the cell mass. These proteins can be divided
into two types: structural proteins and functional
proteins.
Lipids:
Important lipids are phospholipids and cholesterol, which
together constitute only about 2 percent of the total cell
mass. They are mainly insoluble in water and therefore
are used to form the cell membrane and intracellular
membrane barriers that separate the different cell
compartments.
Classification Of Cells:
Cells can be classified as
Eukaryotic cells and
Prokaryotic cells.
They can be distinguished by their structure. The
cells of the human body, as well as those of other
multicellular animals and plants, are eukaryotic
(true-nucleus) cells. These cells contain a nuclear
membrane surrounding the cell nucleus and also
contain numerous other membrane-bound
structures.
Prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, lack these
membranous structures
The interior of a cell is divided into two regions:
(1) The Nucleus, a spherical or oval structure usually
near the center of the cell; and
(2) The Cytoplasm, the region outside the nucleus.
The cytoplasm contains cell organelles and fluid
surrounding the organelles, known as the cytosol.
The term intracellular fluid refers to all the fluid
inside a cell—in other words, cytosol plus the fluid inside
all the organelles, including the nucleus. The chemical
compositions of the fluids in cell organelles may differ
from that of the cytosol. The cytosol is by far the largest
intracellular fluid compartment.
Comparison of cytoplasm and cytosol.
(a) Cytoplasm (shaded area) is the region of the cell outside
the nucleus.
(b) (b) Cytosol (shaded area) is the fluid portion of the
cytoplasm outside the cell organelles.
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

The cell contains highly organized physical

structures, called intracellular organelles. The
physical nature of each organelle is as important as
the cell’s chemical constituents
for cell function. For instance, without one of the
organelles, the mitochondria, more than 95 percent
of the cell’s energy release from nutrients would
cease immediately.
The most important organelles and other structures
of the cell are as follows.
MEMBRANOUS STRUCTURES OF
THE CELL:
Most organelles of the cell are covered by
membranes composed primarily of lipids and
proteins. These membranes include the cell
membrane, nuclear membrane, membrane of
the endoplasmic reticulum, and membranes of
the mitochondria, lysosomes, and Golgi
apparatus.
 Cell Membrane
The cell membrane or plasma membrane envelops
the cell and is a thin, pliable, elastic structure only 7.5
to 10 nanometers thick. It is composed almost entirely
of proteins and lipids.
This membrane separates the fluid outside the cell
called extracellular fluid (ECF) and the fluid inside the
cell called intracellular fluid (ICF).
The cell membrane is a semipermeable membrane.
So, there is free exchange of certain substances
between ECF and ICF.
COMPOSITION OF CELL MEMBRANE
Cell membrane is composed of:
 Proteins (55%).
 Lipids (40%).
 Carbohydrates (5%).
 Phospholipids (25%).
 Cholesterol (13%).
 Other lipids (4%).
The basic lipid bilayer is composed of three main types
of lipids: phospholipids, sphingolipids, and cholesterol.
Phospholipids are the most abundant of the cell
membrane lipids.
STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE
On the basis of structure, cell membrane is called a
unit membrane or a three-layered membrane.
The electron microscopic study reveals three layers of
cell membrane, namely, one central electron-lucent
layer and two electron-dense layers.
The two electron-dense layers are placed one on either
side of the central layer. The central layer is a lipid layer
formed by lipid substances.
The other two layers are protein layers formed by
proteins.
Cell membrane contains some carbohydrate molecules
also.
Structural Model of the Cell Membrane
1. Danielli-Davson model
The first proposed basic model of membrane structure was
‘Danielli Davson model’.
It was proposed by James F Danielli and Hugh Davson in
1935.
This model was basically a ‘sandwich of lipids’ covered by
proteins on both sides.
2. Fluid mosaic model
The fluid mosaic model was proposed by Singer and
Nicholson in 1972. According to that model the membrane is
a fluid with mosaic of proteins, i.e. Mosaic is a pattern formed
by arrangement of different colored pieces of stone, tile or
glass. In this model, the proteins are found to float in the lipid
layer instead of forming the layers of the sandwich-type
model.
 Fluid Mosaic Model
 The surfaces of the membrane are
"hydrophilic" due to the polar
phosphate heads.
 The internal portion of the membrane

is "hydrophobic" due to the non-polar

fatty acid tails;

 The membrane proteins also have
both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
ends.
 Functions of Plasma Membrane:
1. Protective function: Cell membrane protects the
cytoplasm and the organelles present in the cytoplasm.
2. Selective permeability: Cell membrane acts as a
semipermeable membrane, which allows only some
substances to pass through it and acts as a barrier
for other substances.
3. Absorptive function: Nutrients are absorbed into the
cell through the cell membrane.
4. Excretory function: Metabolites and other waste products
from the cell are excreted out through the cell membrane.
5. Exchange of gases: Oxygen enters the cell from the
blood and carbon dioxide leaves the cell and enters the blood
through the cell membrane.
6. Maintenance of shape and size of the cell: Cell
membrane is responsible for the maintenance of shape and
size of the cell.
 Cell Membrane Surface Modifications
1.Cilia / Cilium:
 Short, hair-like cellular extensions(eyelashes);
 Help move substances through passageways;
 Located in lining of respiratory tract & fallopian tube.
2.Flagella:
 Tail-like projection;
 Aids in cell locomotion;
 Sperm cell.
3.Microvilli:
 Small finger-like extensions of the external surface of the
cell membrane;
 Function is to increase surface area.
 Located in the lining of the digestive tract.
 CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm of the cell is the jelly like material formed by
80% of water. It contains a clear liquid portion called
cytosol and various particles of different shape and
size.
These particles are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
or electrolytes in nature. Cytoplasm also contains many
organelles with distinct structure and function.
Cytoplasm is made up of two zones:
1. Ectoplasm: Peripheral part of cytoplasm, situated
just beneath the cell membrane
2. Endoplasm: Inner part of cytoplasm, interposed
bet ween the ectoplasm and the nucleus.
.
ORGANELLES WITH LIMITING MEMBRANE

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of tubular and

microsomal vesicular structures which are interconnected
with one another. It is covered by a limiting membrane
which is formed by proteins and bilayered lipids.

Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
It is the endoplasmic reticulum with rough,
bumpy or bead-like appearance. Rough
appearance is due to the attachment of granular
ribosomes to its outer surface.
Hence, it is also called the granular ER.
 Functions of Rough ER
1. Synthesis of proteins.
2. Degradation of worn-out organelles.

Smooth ER:
It is the ER with smooth
appearance.
It is also called agranular
reticulum. It is formed by many
interconnected tubules. It is also
called tubular ER.
 Functions of Smooth ER

 Synthesis of non-protein
substance.
 Role in cellular metabolism.
 Storage and metabolism of
calcium.
 Catabolism and detoxification.
GOLGI APPARATUS
Golgi apparatus, Golgi body or Golgi complex is a
membrane-bound organelle, involved in the
processing of proteins. It is present in all the cells
except red blood cells. It is named after the discoverer
Camillo Golgi.
Usually, each cell has one Golgi apparatus. Some of
the cells may have more than one Golgi apparatus.
Each Golgi apparatus consists of 5 to 8 flattened
membranous sacs called the cisternae.
Golgi apparatus is situated near the nucleus. It has
two ends or faces, namely cis face and trans face.
The cis face is positioned near the ER.
Reticular vesicles from ER enter the Golgi apparatus
through cis face. The trans face is situated near the
cell membrane. The processed substances make their
exit from Golgi apparatus through trans face
Functions of Golgi Apparatus
Major functions of Golgi apparatus are processing,
packing, labeling and delivery of proteins and other
molecules like lipids to different parts of the cell.
LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are the membrane-bound vesicular
organelles found throughout the cytoplasm. The
lysosomes are formed by Golgi apparatus.
Types of Lysosomes
Lysosomes are of two types:
1.Primary lysosome, which is pinched off from Golgi
apparatus. It is inactive in spite of having hydrolytic
Enzymes.
2.Secondary lysosome, is the active lysosome.
It is formed by the fusion of a primary lysosome with
phagosome or endosome
Functions of Lysosomes
Lysosomes are often called ‘garbage system’ of the
cell because of their degradation activity. About 50
different hydrolytic enzymes, known as acid
hydroxylases are present in the lysosomes, through
which lysosomes execute their functions.
Important lysosomal enzymes
1. Proteases, which hydrolyze the proteins into amino
Acids.
2. Lipases, which hydrolyze the lipids into fatty acids
and glycerides.
3. Amylases, which hydrolyze the polysaccharides
into glucose.
4. Nucleases, which hydrolyze the nucleic acids into
mononucleotides.
PEROXISOMES
Peroxisomes or microbodies are the membrane
limited vesicles like the lysosomes. Unlike lysosomes,
peroxisomes are pinched off from ER and not from the Golgi
apparatus. Peroxisomes contain some oxidative enzymes
such as catalase and urate oxidase.
Functions of Peroxisomes
 Breakdown the fatty acids by means of a process called
beta oxidation.
 Degrade the toxic substances such as hydrogen peroxide
and other metabolic products by means of detoxification.
 Accelerate gluconeogenesis from fats.
 Degrade purine to uric acid.
 Participate in the formation of myelin.
 Play a role in the formation of bile acids.
CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES
Centrosome is the membrane-bound cellular organelle
situated almost in the center of cell, close to nucleus.
It consists of two cylindrical structures called centrioles
which are made up of proteins. Centrioles are responsible
for the movement of chromosomes during cell division.

MITOCHONDRION
Mitochondrion is a membrane bound cytoplasmic
organelle concerned with production of energy. It is a rod-
shaped or oval-shaped structure with a diameter of 0.5 to
1 μ. It is covered by a bilayered membrane. The outer
membrane is smooth and encloses the contents of
mitochondrion. This membrane contains various enzymes
such as acetyl-CoA synthetase.
The inner membrane is folded in the form of
shelf-like inward projections called cristae and it
covers the inner matrix space. Cristae contain
many enzymes and other protein molecules
which are involved in respiration and synthesis of
ATP.
Functions of Mitochondrion
Mitochondrion is called the “power
house” of the cell because it
produces the energy required
for cellular functions.
The energy is produced during the
oxidation of digested food particles
like proteins, lipids and carbohydrates
by the oxidative enzymes in cristae.
ORGANELLES WITHOUT LIMITING
MEMBRANE
RIBOSOMES:
Ribosomes are the organelles without limiting
membrane.
These organelles are granular and small dot-like
structures with a diameter of 15 nm. Ribosomes are
made up of 35% of proteins and 65% of ribonucleic
acid(RNA). RNA present in ribosomes is called
ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomes are concerned with
protein synthesis in the cell.
 Types of Ribosomes
Ribosomes are of two types:
i. Ribosomes that are attached to rough ER.
ii. Free ribosomes that are distributed in the
cytoplasm.
Functions of Ribosomes
Ribosomes are called ‘protein factories’ because they are
Involved in protein synthesis. Messenger RNA
(mRNA) carries the genetic code for protein synthesis
from nucleus to the ribosomes. The ribosomes, in turn
arrange the amino acids into small units of proteins.
Ribosomes attached to rough ER are involved in the synthesis
of proteins such as the enzymatic proteins, hormonal proteins,
lysosomal proteins.
Free ribosomes are responsible for the synthesis of
proteins in hemoglobin, peroxisome and mitochondria.
CYTOSKELETON
Cytoskeleton is the cellular organelle present
throughout the cytoplasm. It determines the shape of
the cell and gives support to the cell.
It is a complex network of structures with varying sizes.
In addition to determining the shape of the cell, it is also
essential for the cellular movements and the response
of the cell to external stimuli.
Cytoskeleton consists of three major protein
components:
1. Microtubule
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microfilaments.
Functions of microtubules
Microtubules may function alone or join with other
proteins to form more complex structures like cilia,
flagella or centrioles and perform various functions.
Microtubules:
i. Determine the shape of the cell
ii. Give structural strength to the cell
iii. Act like conveyer belts which allow the movement
of granules, vesicles, protein molecules and
some organelles like mitochondria to different
parts of the cell.
iv. Form the spindle fibers which separate the
chromosomes during mitosis.
v. Are responsible for the movement of centrioles
and the complex cellular structures like cilia.
Functions of intermediate filaments
Intermediate filaments help to maintain the shape of the
cell. These filaments also connect the adjacent cells
through desmosomes.

Functions of microfilaments
Microfilaments:
i. Give structural strength to the cell
ii. Provide resistance to the cell against the pulling
forces
iii. Are responsible for cellular movements like
contraction, gliding and cytokinesis (partition of
cytoplasm during cell division).
 NUCLEUS
Nucleus is the most prominent and the largest
cellular organelle. It has a diameter of 10 μ to 22 μ
and occupies about 10% of total volume of the cell.
Nucleus is present in all the cells in the body except
the red blood cells. Presence of nucleus is
necessary for cell division. Most of the cells have
only one nucleus (uninucleated cells). Few types
of cells like skeletal muscle cells have many nuclei
. (multinucleated cells). Generally, the nucleus is
located in the center of the cell. It is mostly
spherical in shape.
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS
Nucleus is covered by a membrane called
Major components of nucleus are nucleoplasm,
chromatin and nucleolus.
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS
1.Control of all the cell activities that include metabolism,
protein synthesis, growth and reproduction (cell
division).
2. Synthesis of RNA.
3. Formation of subunits of ribosomes.
4. Sending genetic instruction to the cytoplasm for
protein synthesis through messenger RNA (mRNA).
5. Control of the cell division through genes.
6. Storage of hereditary information (in genes)
and transformation of this information from one
generation of the species to the next.