Equilibrium

Thermodynamic equilibrium
 A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it satisfies the
condition for thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium and also
chemical equilibrium.
 If it is in equilibrium, there are no changes occurring or there is no
process taking place.

Thermal equilibrium:
 There should not be any temperature difference between different

regions or locations within the system.

 If there are, then there is no way a process of heat transfer does not

take place. Uniformity of temperature throughout the system is the

requirement for a system to be in thermal equilibrium.
 Surroundings and the system may be at different temperatures and still

system may be in thermal equilibrium.

 Equilibrium-contd.
Mechanical equilibrium:
 There should not be any pressure difference between different regions

or locations within the system. If there are, then there is no way a

process of work transfer does not take place.
 Uniformity of pressure throughout the system is the requirement for a

system to be in mechanical equilibrium.

 Surroundings and the system may be at pressures and still system may

be in mechanical equilibrium.

Chemical equilibrium:
 There should not be any chemical reaction taking place anywhere in the

system, then it is said to be in chemical equilibrium.

 Uniformity of chemical potential throughout the system is the

requirement for a system to be in chemical equilibrium.

 Surroundings and the system may have different chemical potential

and still system may be in chemical equilibrium.

 Path & Process

Process proceeds in such a manner

that system remains infinitesimally

close to equilibrium conditions at all t=t1 t=0

times. Quasi-Static

It is known as QUASI-STATIC or

QUASI-EQUILIBRIUM Process.

t=t2t t=0
t2 < t1
Non-Quasi-Static
 Path & Process

NOTE : Process Path is a

Quasi-Static CONTINUOUS line only if it is
Process Path having Quasi-Static Process.
Pressure

Non-Quasi-Static Process is
denoted by a DASHED line.
State 1 State 2

Volume Non-Quasi-Static
Process Path

Pressure
State 1 State 2

Volume
 Path & Process

h=Const s=Const
Isenthalpic Isentropic
V=Const
Isochoric

Temperature (T)
Pressure (P)

T=Const
P=Const Isothermal
Isobaric

Volume (V) Enthalpy (h)/ Entropy (s)

 Cycle

State 2 CYCLE :

A system is said to have

undergone a cycle if it returns to its
Property B

ORIGINAL state at the end of the

process.

State 1 Hence, for a CYCLE, the

INITIAL and the FINAL states are
Property A identical.
 Reversible / Irreversible Process
Reversible Process : Process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on the
Surroundings.
i.e. Both, System and Surroundings are returned to their initial
states at the end of the Process.
This is only possible when net Heat and net Work Exchange
between the system and the surroundings is ZERO for the Process.

t=t1 t=0
Quasi-Static Compression and Expansion

Pendulum
REVERSIBLE PROCESS –

one in which the system and its

surroundings can be returned to their
initial state before the process occurs
 Reversible / Irreversible Process

Most of the Processes in nature are IRREVERSIBLE.

i.e. Having taken place, they can not reverse themselves spontaneously and restore the

System to its original State.

e.g. Hot cup of coffee Cools down when exposed to

Surroundings.

But, Warm up by gaining heat from Surroundings.

i.e. w/o external Heat supply.
IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS –
one in which the system and its
surroundings cannot be returned to their initial
state before the process occurs. Also known as
the natural process.
 Reversible / Irreversible Process
Why REVERSIBLE Process ?

1. Easy to analyse, as System passes through series of Equilibriums.

2. Serve as Idealised Model for actual Processes to be compared for analysis.
3. Viewed as Theoretical Limit for corresponding irreversible one.

Reversible Process leads to the definition of Second Law Efficiency; which is Degree
of Approximation (Closeness) to the corresponding Reversible Process.

( )Better the Design, ( )Lower the Irreversibilities; ( ) Second Law Efficiency.

 Temperature

TEMPERATURE :

- No EXACT Definition.

- Broad Definition : “Degree of Hotness / Cold”

- This definition is based on our physiological sensation.

- Hence, may be misleading.

- e.g. Metallic chair may feel cold than Wooden chair; even at SAME temperature.

- Properties of materials change with temperature.

- We can make use of this phenomenon to deduce EXACT level of temperature.

 Temperature Scales
1. Celsius Scale ( ºC ) – SI System
2. Fahrenheit Scale ( ºF ) – English System
3. Kelvin Scale ( K ) – SI System
4. Rankine Scale ( R ) – English System

Celsius Scale and Fahrenheit Scale – Based on 2 easily reproducible fixed states,
viz. Freezing and Boiling points of water.
i.e. Ice Point and Steam Point

Thermodynamic Temperature Scale – Independent of properties of any substance.

- In conjunction with Second Law of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale – Kelvin Scale and Rankine Scale.
 Temperature Scales
Conversion Factors :

ºC K ºF R
T ( K ) = T ( ºC ) + 273.15
Hot End

0.01 273.16 32.02 491.69 T ( R ) = T ( ºF ) + 459.67

T ( ºF ) = 1.8 T ( ºC ) + 32

-273.15 0 -459.67 0
Regenerator T ( R ) = 1.8 TPulse
( KTube
)
 Pressure
Definition : Normal Force exerted by a fluid per unit Area.

SI Units :
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 kPa = 103 Pa
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 103 kPa
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar
1 kgf/cm2 = 9.81 N/m2 = 9.81 X 104 N/m2 = 0.981 bar = 0.9679 atm

English Units :
psi = Pound per square inch ( lbf/in2)
1 atm = 14.696 psi
1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223 psi
 Pressure

Absolute Pressure : Actual Pressure at a given position.

Measured relative to absolute vacuum i.e. absolute zero pressure.

Pressure Gauges are generally designed to indicate ZERO at local atmospheric pressure.

Hence, the difference is known as Gauge Pressure.

i.e. P (gauge) = P (abs) – P (atm)

Pressure less than local atmospheric pressure is known

as Vacuum Pressure.

i.e. P (vacuum) = P (atm) – P (abs)

 Pressure

P (gauge) = P (abs) – P (atm)

P (vacuum) = P (atm) – P (abs)

P (gauge)
Local Atmospheric Pressure
( 1.01325 bar @ Sea Level )
P (vacuum) P (abs) P (atm)

Absolute Zero Pressure

 Ideal & Real Gas
Any equation that relates the Pressure, Temperature and Sp. Volume of the
substance is known as Equation of State.

In 1662, Robert Boyle, observed that Pressure of the gas is inversely proportional to
its Volume.
i.e. PV = C

In 1802, J. Charles and J. Gay-Lussac, observed that Volume of the gas is directly
proportional to its Temperature.

i.e. V /T= C

T  Pv = RT
PR  OR
v
This equation is called Ideal Gas Equation of State.
The hypothetical gas that obeys this law, is known as Ideal Gas.
 Ideal & Real Gas
R is the Constant of Proportionality, given by the unit ( kJ / kg.K )

Now, V (Total Volume) = m.v (Sp. Vol.)

→ PV = mRT
Thus, for a fixed mass;

P1V1 P2V2

T1 T2
Behaviour of a Real Gas approaches to the that of an Ideal Gas, at low densities.
Thus, at low pressures and high temperatures, the density of the gas decreases
and the gas approaches to Ideal Gas.
 Ideal & Real Gas

Application of Ideal Gas Equation is limited to a specific range.

Therefore, it is required to have more accurate predictions for a substance, over a

larger region and without limitations.

Several equations are proposed by various scientists and researchers.

1. Van der Waal’s Equation of State :

 a
 P  2  v  b   RT a and b are Constants.
 v 
This equation takes into account :
1. Intermolecular attraction forces.
2. Volume occupied by the molecules themselves.
 Ideal & Real Gas
2. Beattie – Bridgeman Equation of State :
RuT  c  A
P  1  3 
v  B  
v2  vT  v2

 a  b
Where, A  A0 1   And B  B0 1  
 v  v

3. Benedict – Webb - Rubin Equation of State :

RuT  c  1 bRuT  a a c     v 2
P   B0 RuT  A0  2  2  3
 6  3 2 1  2  e
v  T v v v vT  v 
 Thermal Equilibrium
Thermal Equilibrium : NO change w.r.t. Temperature
NO Temperature Gradient.

HOT cup of tea / coffee cools off w.r.t. time.

COLD Drink warms up w.r.t. time.

When a body is brought in contact with another body at different temperature, heat
is transferred from the body at higher temperature to that with lower one; till both
attain a THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM.
 Heat & Work
Energy can cross the Boundary of the System in 2 forms : 1. Heat
2.
Work Heat is a form of Energy transferred between 2 Systems
( or a System and the surroundings ) by virtue of
Temperature Difference (∆T).
Heat
i.e. Heat is Energy in TRANSITION.
CLOSED
System Process involving no Heat Exchange is known as
Work
ADIABATIC Process.
Atmosphere 25ºC

25 ºC
Q=0 Heat, Q
Adiabatic 15 ºC
 Heat & Work

Possibilities of Adiabatic Process :

1. Perfect Insulation : Negligible Energy transfer through Boundary.

2. Both System and Surrounding at same temperature.

No Energy transfer due to absence of driving force (∆T).

NOTE : Adiabatic Process ≠ Isothermal Process

No Heat Transfer Energy content & temperature of the system can

be changed with help of Work.
 Heat & Work

Energy Transfer in from of Heat by 3 ways :

CONDUCTION : Transfer of Energy from a more energetic particle of a substance

to the adjacent less energetic one, as a result of interaction
between them.

CONVECTION : Transfer of Energy between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid
that is in motion. It involved both, the combined effect of
conduction and fluid motion.

RADIATION : Transfer of Energy due to the emission of electromagnetic waves.

 Heat & Work

WORK : Work is the Energy transfer associated with a Force acting through a distance.
Denoted by J or kJ.

e.g. Raising Piston, Rotating Shaft, etc.

∆X

Force
 Heat & Work
Sp. Work = Work per unit Mass

w = W/m ( J/kg )

Power = Work per unit Time

P = W/time ( J/sec OR W )

Sign Convention :
SURROUNDINGS
Heat Transfer TO a System : + ve Qin

Heat Transfer FROM a System : - ve Qout

Work done BY a System : + ve SYSTEM
Win
Work done ON a System : - ve
Win
 Heat & Work
Similarities between HEAT & WORK :

1. Both are recognised at the Boundary of the System, as they cross the
Boundary. Hence both are Boundary Phenomena.
2. System possesses Energy, but neither Heat nor Work.
3. Both are associated with Process, not State. Heat and Work have NO meaning
at a State.
4. Both are Path Functions.

Path Function : Magnitude depends on the Path followed during the Process, as
well as the End States.

Point Function : Magnitude depends on State only, and not on how the System
approaches that State.
 Heat & Work

Path Functions have Inexact Differentials, designated by symbol δ.

Thus, a differential amount of Heat or Work is represented as δQ or δW; in stead of

dQ or dW.

Properties, on the other hand, are Point Functions, and have Exact Differentials,
designated by symbol d.
 Specific Heat

Different materials require different amount of Energy for their temperatures to

increase thought unit quantity ( i.e. 1 ºC) for identical mass.

Hence, it is required to define a

Property to compare the ENERGY
1 kg 1 kg
Fe H 2O STORAGE CAPACITY of different
20 – 30 ºC 20 – 30 ºC substances.

4.5 kJ 41.8 kJ This Property is known as SPECIFIC

HEAT.
 Specific Heat

DEFINITION :
m = 1 kg
∆T = 1 ºC The Energy required to raise the temperature of a
Sp. Heat = 5 kJ/kg ºC unit mass of a substance by 1 degree.

5 kJ

Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (CP) :

The Energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by 1 degree,
as the Pressure is maintained CONSTANT.

Specific Heat at Constant Volume (CV) :

The Energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by 1 degree,
as the Volume is maintained CONSTANT.
 Specific Heat
Consider a System with fixed mass and undergoing Const. Vol. Process (expansion /
compression).
First Law of Thermodynamics → ein – eout = ∆esystem
Since it is a Const. mass System;
Net amount of Change of Energy = Change in Internal Energy (u).

i.e. δein – δeout = du

Hence, CV is change in Internal Energy of a
du  CV dT …by Definition of CV substance per unit change in temperature at
 u  constant Volume.
 CV   
 T V
dh  C P dT …by Definition of CP Hence, CP is change in Enthalpy of a

 h  substance per unit change in temperature at

 CP   
 T  P constant Pressure.
 Specific Heats of Ideal Gases

h = u + Pv ….by Definition of Enthalpy

But, Pv = RT ….by Ideal Gas Law

Thus, h = u + RT

dh = du + R dT

CP dT = CV dT + R dT ….by Definition of CP and CV

CP = CV + R (kJ/kg.K)

Specific Heat Ratio, k ( or γ ) is given by;

CP
k ( or γ ) =
CV
 PdV Work
Area A Let the Piston be moving from

P 2 V2 Thermodynamic Equilibrium State 1 (P1, V1)

P 1 V1 to State 2 (P2, V2).
Let the values at any intermediate
State 1 State 2 Equilibrium State is given by P and V.

For an Infinitesimal displacement, dL, the Infinitesimal Work done is;

P1
dW = F * dL = P*A*dL = PdV
Quasi-Static

Pressure
Similarly, for Process 1 – 2; we can say that; Process Path
V2 P2
W1 2   PdV
V1
V1 Volume
V2
 PdV Work
PdV Work in Different Quasi-Static Processes :

P=Const
Isobaric
State 1 State 2 V2

W1 2   PdV  P (V2  V1 )

Pressure (P)

V1

W1-2

Volume (V) V2
V1
 PdV Work
PdV Work in Different Quasi-Static Processes :

State 1
P1
V=Const
Pressure (P)

Isochoric V2

W1 2   PdV  0
V1

P2 State 2

Volume (V)
 PdV Work

PdV Work in Different Quasi-Static Processes :

V2
State 1
P1 W1 2   PdV
PV = C
Pressure

V1
Quasi-Static
P1V1
PV  P1V1  C  P 
V
State 2 V2
P2 dV V P
W1 2  P1V1   P1V1 ln 2  P1V1 ln 1
V1
V V1 P2
V1 Volume V2
 PdV Work

PdV Work in Different Quasi-Static Processes :

n
n n PV
PV n  P1V1  P2V2  C  P  1 n1
1 V
P1 PVn = C V2

W1 2   PdV
Pressure

V1

V2 V2
dV  V  n 1 
  P1V1
n n
W1 2  P V  
n =∞ n =1 V1
Vn
1 1
  n  1V1
2
P2
 
n n 1 n n 1 n
PV 1 n 1 n P V X V2  P1V1 X V1
n =3 n =2  1 1 V2  V1  2 2
1 n 1 n
P1V1   P2  
n 1 / n
Volume P1V1  P2V2
  1    
n 1 n  1   P1  

 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMIC

 The change in internal energy of a closed system U, will be equal

to the energy added to the system by heating the work done by the
system on the surroundings.

U=Q–W 1st Law of

Thermodynamics

 Q is the net heat added to the system

W is the net work done by the system
U is the internal energy of a closed system.

**First law of thermodynamics is conservation of

energy.
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMIC
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS – process that carried out at constant
temperature

PV = constant

PV diagram for an ideal gas undergoing isothermal

processes
Second Law of Thermodynamics

“Heat can spontaneously flow from a

higher-temperature region to a
lower-temperature region, but not
the other way around."
Second Law of Thermodynamics

Where:
ΔS - change in entropy
ΔQ – change in heat
T - Period
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMIC
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
ADIABATIC PROCESS – An adiabatic process is one in which no heat
is gained or lost by the system. The first law of thermodynamics with
Q=0 shows that all the change in internal energy is in the form of work.

PV diagram for an ideal gas undergoing isothermal

processes
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMIS
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
ISOBARIC PROCESS – A process is one which the pressure is kept
constant.

ISOVOLUMETRIC PROCESS – A process is one in which the volume

does not change
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMIS

 Second Law of Thermodynamics is a statement about which

processes occur in nature and which do not.

Heat can flow spontaneously from a hot object to a cold object;

heat will not flow spontaneously form a cold object to a hot object.

Q = mc ΔT = mc (T2 – T1)

Q = quantity of heat transferred (J)

m = mass of the material (kg)
c = specific heat capacity (J/kg K)
T1= initial temperature (K or °C)
T2= final temperature (K or °C)
ΔT= temperature difference = T2 – T1
 HEAT ENGINE

 The idea is that the energy can be obtained

from thermal energy only when heat is
allowed to flow from a high temperature to a
low temperature.

 In each cycle the change in internal energy of

the system is U = 0 because it returns to the
starting state. QH at a high temperature TH is
partly transformed into work W and partly
exhausted as heat QL at a lower temperature
T L.
Schematic diagram of energy transfer
for heat engine
 HEAT ENGINE

Heated steam passes through the intake valve and

expand against a piston (forcing it to move)

As the piston returns to its original position, it

forces the gases out the exhaust valve.

Reciprocating type
 HEAT ENGINE

 Reciprocating piston is replaced by a rotating

turbine that resembles a paddlewheel with many set
of blades.

 The material that is heated and cooled, (steam) is

called working substance.

 In a steam engine, the high temperature is obtained

by burning coal, oil, or other fuel to heat the steam.

Turbine
 HEAT ENGINE

In internal combustion engine, the high temperature is achieved by burning the

gasoline-air mixture in the cylinder itself.
 EFFICIENCY
 The efficiency, e, of any heat engine can be defined as the ratio of the work it
does, W, to the heat input at the high temperature, Q H.

W
e
QH

 Since energy is conserved, the heat input Q H must equal the work done plus the
heat that flows out at the low temperature Q L.
QH  W  QL
W  QH  QL
QH  QL
e
QH
QL
e  1
QH

** e could be 1.0 (@100%) only if QL were zero – that is only if no heat were exhausted to the
environment.
 CARNOT ENGINE
 Carnot engine consist of four
processes done in a cycle, two of
which are adiabatic and two are
isothermal.

 Each of the processes was done

slowly that the process could be
considered a series of equilibrium
states, and the whole process could
be done in reverse with no change
in the magnitude of work done or
heat exchanged.
 CARNOT ENGINE

 Carnot showed that for an ideal reversible engine, the heat QH and QL
are proportional to the operating temperatures TH and TL so the
efficiency ca be written as
TH  TL
eideal 
TH
TL
eideal  1
TH
 Real engine always have an efficiency lower than this because of
losses due to friction and the like.
 APPLICATIONS:
REFRIGERATOR, AIR CONDITIONERS & HEAT
PUMP
 APPLICATIONS:
REFRIGERATOR, AIR CONDITIONERS & HEAT
PUMP

Evaporator

Capillary tube

Liquid Refrigerant

Condenser

High Pressure Gas

Compressor
 APPLICATIONS:
REFRIGERATOR, AIR CONDITIONERS & HEAT
PUMP
 Electrical Energy => Kinetic Energy => Heat energy
 When refrigerants change from vapor to liquid, heat is discharged.
 On the contrary, changing from liquid to vapor, heat is absorbed
 APPLICATIONS:
REFRIGERATOR, AIR CONDITIONERS & HEAT
PUMP
 The principle of refrigerators, air conditioners and heat pumps is just
the reverse of a heat engine.

 Refrigerator: no work is required to take heat from the low-temperature

region to high-temperature region [no device is possible whose sole
effect is to transfer heat from one system at a temperature T L into a
second system at a higher temperature TH.]

 The coefficient of performance (COP) of a refrigerator is defined as the

heat QL removed from the low-temperature area divided by the work
done W to remove the heat.
QL
COP  [refrigerator and
W
air conditioner]
 APPLICATIONS:
REFRIGERATOR, AIR CONDITIONERS & HEAT
PUMP
 More heat , QL, that can be removed from inside the refrigerator for a
given amount of work, the better (more efficient) the refrigerator is.
 Energy is conserved;
QL  W  QH
QL QL
COP  
W QH  QL
 Ideal refrigerator;
TL
COPideal 
TH  TL

 Air conditioner works very much like a refrigerator, it takes heat Q L

from inside a room or building at a low temperature, and deposits
heat QH outside the environment at a higher temperature.
 APPLICATIONS:
REFRIGERATOR, AIR CONDITIONERS & HEAT
PUMP
 Heat naturally flows from high to
low temperature, but for
refrigerators and air conditioners do
work to accomplish the opposite to
make heat flow from cold to hot.
 APPLICATIONS:
REFRIGERATOR, AIR CONDITIONERS & HEAT
PUMP
 Heat pump is usually reserved for a device that can heat a house in
winter by using an electric motor that does work W to take heat Q L
from the outside at low temperature and delivers heat QH to the
warmer inside of the house.

 The objective of heat pump is to heat pump is to heat rather than to

cool. Thus the COP is defined directly than for an air conditioner
because it is the heat QH delivered to the inside of the house.
QH
COP 
W
 APPLICATIONS:
REFRIGERATOR, AIR CONDITIONERS & HEAT
PUMP
A refrigerator is removing heat at a rate of 6 kJ.
The required power input to the refrigerator is 2kJ.
QL 6 kJ
(a) COP = = =3
Wnet 2 kJ 25℃
(b) QH = QL + Wnet,in 5℃
= 6kJ + 2kJ= 8 kJ QL = QH =
6kJ 8kJ

 COP of an electric heater = 1,

because the electricity is totally Wnet = 2kJ
converted to heat
 APPLICATIONS:
REFRIGERATOR, AIR CONDITIONERS & HEAT
PUMP
Refrigerator Air conditioner
80 1200
th

1000
60

t
kWh/Month

800

Watt
40 600
400
20
200
0 0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Technical Breakthrough for energy savings

 Start using an inverter in 1997  Brushless DC compressor in 1992
 Change Refrigerants in 2000  Start using an inverter in 1996
R134a(HFC) to R600a(HC)  Continual improvement of heat
 Improvement of insulator in 2003 exchanger and Magnetic motor
Poly-urethane to Vacuum insulator
 APPLICATIONS:
REFRIGERATOR, AIR CONDITIONERS & HEAT
PUMP
Table Characteristics of Refrigerants
R-12 R-134a R-600a
(HCFC) (HFC) (HC)
Chemical Characteristics
Effective displacement (L/kJ) 0.79 0.81 1.52
Evaporator pressure (kPa) 181.9 163.6 89.2
Condenser pressure (kPa) 743.2 770.7 403.6
Flammability no no yes
Environmental Characteristics
Atmospheric life time 130 yrs 16 yrs less than 1yr
Ozone Depletion Potential (R-12 = 1) 1 0 0
Global Warming Potential (CO2 = 1) 8500 1300 3
 Problems on non-flow process

1. A stationary mass of gas is compressed without friction from an initial state of 0.3
and 0.105MPa to a final state of 0.15 and 0.105MPa. There is a transfer of 37.6kJ of
heat from the gas during the process. How much does the internal energy of the gas
change?

Sol:

(i)
Here

Therefore

From (i)

Thus the internal energy is decreased by 21.85kJ.

2.When a system is taken from state a to state b shown in fig along path acb, 84kJ of
heat flow into the system, and the system does 32kJ of work. A) How much will the heat
flows into the system along path adb if the work done is 10.5kJ? B)When the system is
returned from b to a along the curved path, the work done on the system is 21kJ. Does
the system absorb or liberate heat and how much of the heat is absorbed or liberated?
C) If Ua=0 and Ud = 42kJ, find the heat absorbed in the processes ad and db.

Sol:
To find
i) Qadb
ii) Qba
iii) Qad and Qdb

Given ,
Qacb = 84kJ
Wacb = 32kJ

If Wadb = 10.5kJ
Wba = 21kJ
Ua=0 , Ud = 42kJ

i)
ii)

iii)
Therefore

Now
3. A piston cylinder machine contains a fluid system which passes through a
complete cycle of four processes. During a cycle, a sum of all heat transfer is
-170kJ. The system completes 100 cycles per min. Complete the table for
each item and compute the net rate work output in kW.

Sol:
Since,
4.The internal energy of the certain substance is given by

Sol:
a)

Now
For a quasi-static process,
5. A fluid is confined in a cylinder by a spring loaded, frictionless piston so that the
pressure in the fluid is linear function of volume p= a+bV. The internal energy of fluid is
given by,

Sol:

Now,

From these equations,

Work done involved in the process,
Example-I (Non Flow Process)

A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 5 kg of steam at

400 kPa and 200 ⁰C. Heat is transferred to the steam until the
temperature reaches 250 ⁰C. If the piston is not attached to the shaft, and
its mass is constant, determine the Work done by the steam during the
Process . Use the data given in FIG. for Sp. Volume.

Constant Pressure, Quasi-Static Process.

V2
P=Const
W1 2   PdV  P (V2  V1 )
Pressure (P)

V1

W1-2 = mP(v1 – v2)…..V = mv

W1-2 = (5)(400)[(0.59520 – 0.53434)

Volume (V) kg kPa m3/kg
v1 = 0.53434 W1-2 = 121.7 kJ…ANS
v2 = 0.59520
m /kg
3
m3/kg
 Example-II
A piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m3 of air at 100
kPa and 80 ⁰C. The air is now compressed to 0.1 m3 in such a way that
the temperature remains constant. Determine the Work done during
this Process.
SOL: Isothermal, Quasi-Static Process.
V2

P2
State 2 W1 2   PdV
V1
T0 = 80 ⁰C = Const.
Pressure

V2
dV V
W1 2  P1V1   P1V1 ln 2
V1
V V1
State 1
P1 0.1
W1-2 = (100)(0.4) ln
0.4
kPa m3
V2 Volume V1
W1-2 = -55.5 kJ…ANS
Negative sign indicates that the Work is done ON the system.
CONTROL VOLUME
STEADY FLOW PROCESS
STEADY FLOW PROCESS
STEADY FLOW PROCESS-contd.
MASS BALANCE

ENERGY BALANCE
The total work done is given by,
Or
Specific energy e is given by,
Where h is given by,

Dividing by

Or SFEE can be written as,

APPLICATIONS OF SFEE

NOZZLE & DIFFUSOR

A nozzle is a device which increases the kinetic energy of fluid

by the expense of its pressure drop, whereas the diffusor
increases the pressure by the expense of KE.

Therefor the SFEE,

TURBINE AND COMPRESSOR
Problem-1
Air flows steadily at the rate of 0.5kg/s through an air com-

Sol:
Sol:
Sol:
For Heat exchanger,