Homeostasis and control

systems
• homeo- same; stasis standing
• Homeostasis is the term we use to describe the constant state of
the internal environment.
• The processes and activities that help to maintain homeostasis are
referred to as homeostatic mechanisms.
• The temperature, pH, concentration of various solutes and ions of
ECF is almost constant.
• The ECF forms the internal environment of the cell or body is called
as milieu interior
• This term was first introduced by a French Physiologist Claude
Bernard
• Significance
• The enzyme systems in our body are very sensitive to changes in
temperature, pH and ion concentration.
• Any deflection from the normal range will affect their functioning.
Enzymes are killed and finally all the biological activities come to
stand still and death occur. eg temperature of ECF,BSL
• homeostasis is maintained with the co- ordination of different
organs.
• ECF
• LUNGS
• GIT
• LIVER
• KIDNEYS
• Regulation of the Body Functions
• Regulation- the ability of an organism to maintain a stable internal
conditions in a constantly changing environment
• Three types:
• 1. Chemical (hormonal) Regulation- a regulatory process performed
by hormone or active chemical substance in blood or tissue.
• -It response slowly, acts extensively and lasts for a long time.

• 2. Nervous Regulation- a process in which body functions are

controlled by nerve system
• -Pathway: nerve reflex
• -Types: unconditioned reflex and conditioned reflex
• Example: baroreceptor reflex of arterial blood pressure
• Characteristics; response fast, acts exactly or locally, last for a short
time
• 3. Autoregulation - a tissue or an organ can directly respond to
environmental changes that are independent of nervous and
hormonal control
• Characteristics: Amplitude of the regulation is smaller than other two
types.
• Extension of the effects is smaller than other two types.

• Status of a body condition is continually monitored, evaluated,

changed, monitored & reevaluated via the feedback.
Characteristic Of Control System
•Most physiological systems in the body use feedback to maintain the
body's internal environment exactly balanced
•Types of feedback systems
•• Negative
•• Positive
•Basic components of a feedback system
•1. A receptor :detects changes (stimuli) in the body.
•2. A control center: determines a set point
•for a normal range.
•3. An effector: causes the response determined by the control center.
 .

Negative and Positive feedback

mechanism in biological system
• Many biological systems are regulated by feedback mechanisms. The
definition is the word "feedback"
• Back to the source of signal and whether this will inhibit or stimulate the
source
• Types of Feedback
• Feedback systems are classified into two different types: positive feedback
and negative feedback. These terms positive and negative feedback which
denotes the type of response the system has to the presence of the effector.
• Positive feedback system
• In positive feedback systems, the effector of a process bolsters the
stimulus, which increases the production of the product.
• Examples of Positive feedback mechanism- Enzyme cascade
hypothesis of blood coagulation, Parturition reflex, Hodgkin's cycle,
Activation of digestive enzymes, LH surge
• One common example of a positive feedback system in living things
is blood clotting. When skin is cut and a blood vessel experiences
damage, platelets in the blood stream collect at the site of the cut
and begin releasing several different chemicals (the product
/effector of the process) that signal more platelet recruitment; more
platelets trigger more chemical release, which trigger more platelets,
which trigger more chemical signals, and so on, until the platelets
and various associated proteins have plugged up the cut with a clot.
• Another example is the process of labor and childbirth in mammals. The
effector is a hormone called oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions,
which then cause more oxytocin release, hence more contractions. This
continues until the baby is born.
• The positive feedback process of labor, in which oxytocin stimulates uterine
contractions.
• Positive feedback systems essentially cause a growing cascade reaction in
which each new product further amplifies the very process that created it,
ensuring a whole lot more product. They are typically not ongoing processes
in an individual, but rather reactions to specific states of physiological stress,
as we see in these two examples.
• The child pushes on the cervix (stimulus) and the signal is sent to the brain.
The brain releases oxytocin to stimulate the uterus to contract. As the baby
pushes, more oxytocin is release, completing the positive feedback. This
continues until the baby is delivered.
• Negative Feedback
• In negative feedback systems, the effector of a process reduces the
effect of the stimulus, which in turn decreases the production of the
product.
• This is a more common process in living systems as it serves to
maintain homeostasis of organisms, their optimal internal
environment. Many different key parameters of living things-
temperature, pH, and hormone levels, for example - must stay
within a particular range for those organisms to thrive.
• Negative feedback systems maintain homeostasis by ensuring that
the product of a process does not reach excessive amounts, as the
presence of a product will reduce the further stimulus and
production of more product.
• Examples of Negative Feedback
• When a human is hungry, metabolism slows down to conserve
energy and allow the human to continue living with less food.
• Regulation of blood sugar in humans - When blood sugar rises,
insulin sends a signal to the liver, muscles and other cells to store
the excess glucose. Some is stored as body fat and other is stored
as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
• Production of human red blood cells (erythropoiesis) - A decrease in
oxygen is detected by the kidneys and they secrete erythropoietin.
This hormone stimulates the production of red blood cells.
• Human body temperature - The hypothalamus of a human responds to
temperature fluctuations and responds accordingly. If the temperature drops,
the body shivers to bring up the temperature and if it is too warm, the body
will sweat to cool down due to evaporation.
• Human blood pressure - When blood pressure increases, signals are sent to
the brain from the blood vessels.
• Signals are sent to the heart from the brain and heart rate slows down, thus
helping blood pressure to return to normal.
• Glucose and insulin. When we eat a meal a large spike in glucose happens.
This changes our glucose range beyond the normal level. To promote cells to
use and store glucose the body releases insulin. This brings the glucose level
back to normal.
• On the other side if the glucose level is too low, the body will release
glucagon. This will promote the release of stored sugars (glycogen to
glucose). This will pull low glucose sugar levels back to normal. This is the
opposite feedback loop to insulin.
• Gain
• Gain determines the efficiency of negative foodback mechanism.
Greater the value of gain, more efficient will be the mechanism. -
Gain-correction applied residual error
• For eg. The MAP raised from its set point of 90 mmlly to 120mmlig
during exercise. However, baroreceptor reflex brings it down to
100mmHg, Find the gain of baroreceptor reflex.
• Solution-Correction applied 120-100 mmHg = 20 mmHg
• Residual error-100-90 mmHg = 10 mmHg
• Gain-correction applied residual error - 20/10 = 2
• Feedforward mechanism
• Feedforward or anticipatory control mechanisms permit the body to
predict a change in the physiology of the organism and initiate a
response that can reduce the movement of a regulated variable out
of its normal range.
• Thus, feedforward mechanisms may help minimize the effects of a
perturbation and can help maintain homeostasis.
• For example, anticipatory increases in breathing frequency will
reduce the time course of the response to exercise-induced hypoxia