UNIT SIX: INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL

RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941

Overview: From 1800-1941, Ethiopia and the Horn

experienced:
the expansion of trade
 state formations
territorial expansion
creation of modern Ethiopia
 modernization, and
 major battles fought against aggression.
In the 19th c, several autonomous and semi-autonomous
states existed.
• They were found at different stages of socio-economic and
political developments.
• The political organizations of most of states were
monarchical system in nature.
• They maintained strong economic, social and political
relations with one another.
6.1. The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and
States of Ethiopia and the Horn
Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and
Western Ethiopia
A. South-Central: Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, and Gurage
were autonomous and semi-autonomous political entities
during this period.
 In the second half of the 19th c Qabena emerged as a strong
political entity.
 It became a center of Muslim revivalist movement to the
northeast of the Gibe River.
 Stirred by Muslim refugees from Wollo, and with possible
connections even with the Mahdist Sudan, the movement
swept across a large part of the region and was attended by a
fast spread of Islam.
B. The Gibe States: towards the beginning of the nineteenth
century, several monarchical states (motumma) emerged
among the Mecha Oromo at the expense of the Gadaa system.
These were:
Limmu-Enarya
It was the earliest monarchy founded through the
incorporation of Enarya.
Bofoo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825) established it.
It reached the height of its power during Ibsa/Abba
Bagiboo (1825-61).
Ibsa incorporated areas including Hagalo, Badi-Folla etc.
He was succeeded by Abba Bulgaa (1861-1883).
Guma
Initiated by Jilcha /Abba Bal’oo of Chira.
Jilcha was succeeded by his son Oncho (1810-1830) who
was in turn succeeded by Jawwe (1840-1854).
Gomma
formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829).
Abba Manoo (1829-1840) converted to Islam.
He occupied territories like Qattuu.
Jimma
Abba Dula Ose Kobi (Abba Faro) sought to take power from
Makahore, an influential female figure.
He was elected as a hereditary ruler.
Dangila (Abba Magal) who enlarged the domain.
The process of state formation was completed by
Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55).
Tullu /Abba Jifar II (ca. r.1875-1934) was the most famous
of is rulers.
Gera- the last in state formation of Gibe region.
It was fully formed by Tullu Gunji (r.1835-38).
Abba Basso & Abba Rago I (r.1838-48) successively ruled.
Abba Magal who had been converted to Islam.
C. The Leqa/Wallaga States: Sibu, Jawwi, Leqa-Naqamte,
I. Leqa-Naqamte:
 founded by Bakare Godana in 1840.
 reached its height under his successors Moroda and Kumsa.
 based on qoro system-essentially kingship.
 Moti Kumsa (later Dejazmach Gebre-Egzi'abiher) was
known for promoting handcraft work, gold washing, coffee
planting and game reserves/hunting.
II. Leqa-Qellam
 founded by Tullu and became powerful under his son, Jote.
 centered at Gidami and controlled areas around Sayyo-
Dambi Dollo.
D. Ilu- the Tume clan leader Chali Shono (Abba Bor) set up
the well-consolidated state of Ilu-Abba Bor in the early 19th
c. It was one of the prosperous states in the region.
o Each Oromo monarchical state had officials like:
o Abba Gurmu (next person to the king),
o Abba Mizan (treasurer and foreign affair minister),
o Abba Dango (immigration chief),
o Abba Lammi (ambassador/royal messenger),
o Abba Qoro (district governor),
o Abba Ganda (village chief), Abba Busi (tax head),
o Abba Jiga (murder judge) and
o Abba Qawe (head of body-guard).
E. Nilotic Sheikdoms- In the early 19th c, important Islamic
centers emerged in the lower course of the Abbay (by
Berta+Gumz+Sudanese Muslim merchants) .
 the Sheikhdom of Assosa or Aqoldi
 got preeminence under Sheikh Khojale al Hasan.
 Bela Shangul=South of Abay
 became famous under Abd al Rahman Khojale
 and Khomosha=South of Abay
 at zenith under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud.
 Sheikhdom of Guba=North of Abay
•These four sheikhdoms were founded by Muslim leaders of
Sudanese origin who considered themselves as ‘Watawit’.
•Watawit refers to Arbaized Berta people who had entered and
settled in Benishangul as traders and Islamic religious teachers
in the late 19th and early 20th c.
 Trade and Trade Routes
During this period, two main trade lines linked various
territories of Ethiopia and the Horn.
One of the lines connected Bonga, Hirmata (in Jimma), Saqa
(in Limmu), Billo (in Leqa-Naqamte), Asandabo (in Guduru),
Basso-Yajube (in Gojjam), Yifag and Darita (in Begemider)
and Gondar.
 From Gondar, one line bifurcated to westward through
Chilga to Matamma-Qallabat (Gallabat) and was dominated
by the Sudanese merchants called Jallaba.
 The other route passed through Adwa, Asmara and entered
Massawa.
Still another split at Basso to move via Ancharro and Dawwe
in Wollo and Awusa in Afar to Tajura, Obbok and Rahe’ita
in Djibouti.
II. The second major trade route also began from Bonga and
passed through Hirmata to Agabja-Andode-Toli to Soddo in
southwest Shewa; Rogge near Yerer.
 Then, the line passed through Aliyu Amba or Abdul Rasul
in northern Shewa and ran eastward to Harar.
 From Harar, the route branched into Zeila and Berbera, the
most important commercial centers in Somalia.
 Then Ethiopian products were mostly sold in the Middle
East.
 6.2. The Making of Modern Ethiopian State
State building remained an agenda of several powerful
individuals and groups that arose in the nineteenth century.
States in the northern and central parts of Ethiopia had
relative strength.
 The making of the modern Ethiopian state went through
two distinct phases.
A. Unifying northern and north central parts of the Christian
kingdom Ethiopia.
B. Territorial expansion into the southern parts adjoining the
heartland of the Christian kingdom.
A. Unification of Old provinces
#It was began by Kasa Haylu (shifta and later Emperor from
1855-1868).
-Kasa beat war lords of his times turn by turn. For exa. He beat:
 Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on Nov. 27,
1852;
 Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew, the four dejjazmachs
sent by Ras Ali, at Taqusa (Gorgora Bichign) on April 12,
1853;
 Ras Ali at Ayshal on 29 June 1853 and
 Dejjazmach Wube of Simen and Tigray at Deresge on 8
February, 1855.
 After victory, he was anointed by Abune Salama, the Coptic
bishop at Deresge Mariam on 9 February 1855, with the
throne name of Tewodros II.
 The coronation marked the end of Zemene Mesafint.
 He also campaigned to Wollo & Shewa.
 He wanted to create a strong central government by
appointing both hereditary and non-hereditary rulers
Factors behind the downfall of Tewodros II include:
Internal Challenges-opposition of regional lords & the EOC.
External challenges-diplomatic crises & conflict with British.
However, Tewodros’s policies of unification and building central
government were preserved by his successors.
These were:
ii. Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta (Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II
(1868−71).
 Tekle-Giyorgis carried out military expeditions to different
regions.
 He controlled central Amhara except Shewa.
 However, Ras Kasa Mircha of Tigray challenged his power in
the north.
iii. Kasa Mircha of Tigray (Emperor Yohannes IV (1872-
1889).
-attempted to introduce a decentralized system of
administration.
e.g. recognized Menilek as Negus of Shewa in 1878 by the
Liche agreement.
Similarly, Yohannes designated Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam as
Negus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881.
-wanted to bring religious unity=at the Council of Boru Meda
(1878).
-Tewahdo was declared the only doctrine of the EOC.
iv. Negus Menilek of Shewa/Emperor Menelik II(r. 1889-
1913).
-completed formation of modern Ethiopia that involved
campaigns to get new territories.
B. Territorial Expansion
 The most successful of territorial expansion was managed
by Menilek of Shewa.
 This was because Menilek had, among other factors, access
to modern firearms.
 The control of resourceful areas that enabled the emperor
to build military muscle.
 The determination of his generals also contributed for his
successes.
 Menilek’s expansion involved both forceful subjugation and
peaceful submissions.
 His expansion can be discussed in three phases:
When he was king of Shewa (1865-89),
 From 1889-96 (Emperorship to Battle of Adwa) and
 Aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900).
 First Phase- Before the 1870s, Menilek had already
incorporated the Tulema and eastern Mecha Oromo
territories. He controlled local leaders notably:
Ashe Rufo of Salale,
Dula Ara’e of Gullale,
Tufa Muna of Gimbichu,
Ture Galate of Soddo and others.
 Meanwhile, other Oromo elites such as Ras Gobena Dache,
Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde, Dejjach Balcha Safo
(Abba Nefso) and others cooperated towards the formation
of the modern Ethiopian state.
 In 1875-76, northern Gurage, the Kistane, peacefully
submitted.
 Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem, and Jimma Jifar submitted to
Menilek peacefully.
 Arsi in 1886 by Menelik’s force led by Ras Darge Sahile-
Selassie.
 In 1887 by Dejjach Wolde-Gabra'el defeated Emir Abdullahi OF
Harar and Bakar Ware.
#2nd Phase=1889-1896
Menelik’s army controlled:
 Dawuro-Konta in 1889
 Kambata in 1890.
 From the early 1890s to 1894 Bale, Sidama, Gamo Gofa and
Wolayta.
 #The 3rd Phase-(1896-1900): Menilek's force incorporated Kafa
in 1897
 Maji in 1898/99
- Beni-Shangul in 1897/98, and
-Tesema Nadew also controlled Baro (Sobat) and Nasir in
Gambella.
The process of territorial expansion was consummated with
the singing of boundary agreements with the neighboring
colonial powers that continued until 1908.

Boundary between
No. Year of delimitation
Ethiopia and
1 French Somaliland March 1897
2 British Somaliland June 1897
3 Eritrea 1900
4 The Sudan 1902
5 British East Africa 1907
6 Italian Somaliland 1908

Boundary Agreements, Misikir T., Mirror History, 2020.

 6.3. Modernization Attempts
The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed efforts to adopt
western ideas and technology by Ethiopian monarchs.
Emperor Tewodros:
introduced military titles, like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa Aleqa,
and Yeshi Aleqa.
 tried to organize and replace the regional armies of the
Zemene-Mesafint with salaried national army.
attempted to manufacture firearms at his workshop, Gafat
(near Debre Tabor) with the help of European missionaries
and artisans.
 tried to build a small navy in Lake Tana.
introduced a policy of “general pacification”, warning
everyone should return to his lawful vocation, the merchant to
his store, and the farmer to his plough.
tried to separate the church and the monarchy.
reduced the church land & the number of priests & deacons.
began the construction of Ethiopia’s first embryonic road
network to link Debre Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam, and
Maqdela.
also attempted to put an end to the slave trade.
attempted to ban polygamy.
the use of Amharic became more developed,
established a traditional library at Maqdela.
tried to solve the doctrinal controversy within the EOC.
 However, Tewodro’s reforms were not fully materialized
owing to internal oppositions and external challenges.
Emperor Yohannes' reign also witnessed several important
reforms and innovations. From among these, he:
was the first Ethiopian monarch to appoint foreign consul
who served as his representative in London.
hired personnel (French mechanic, a Hungarian gunsmith,
and an Italian construction worker).
 sent some individuals abroad for modern education.
was also the first to introduce modern style vaccine against
smallpox replacing traditional inoculation.
 realized extensive treatment of syphilis in several towns.
oModernization attempts of the reign of Emperor Menilek II are
mostly post-Adwa phenomenon and had diverse elements.
 the establishment of a postal service and
telecommunications/ the telephone-telegraph system.
  construction of railway line from Djibouti to Addis Ababa,
 the opening of a bank (the Bank of Abyssinia) and
 the introduction of paper money.
 In terms of administration, the emperor introduced
European style ministerial system/ministers in 1907.
Name of the member Position held
Afe-Nigus Nesibu Mesqelo Minister of Justice
Fitawrari Habte-Giyorgis Dinegde Minister of War
Tsehafe-Tizaz Gebre-Sillase Welde-
Minister of Pen
Aregay
Bejerond Mulugeta Yiggezu Minister of Finance
Neggadras Haile-Giyorgis Welde- Minister of Commerce and Foreign
Mikael Affairs
Azazh Metaferya Melke-Tsadiq Minister of Imperial Court

Members of Menelik’s Council of Ministers, Misikir T., Mirror History, 2020 .

oMenelik’s reign also witnessed the opening of:
o a hotel in 1907 (Itege Hotel),
omodern school (Menilek II School in 1908) and
othe foundation of Russian Red Cross hospital in 1906
and
oRussian-run hospital (Menilek II Hospital) in 1910.
6.4 Socio-Economic Developments
Agriculture
Changes in slavery and slave trade
 introduction of manufacturing
 expansion of urbanization and urban life
e.g. Dire-Dawa, Adama, Bishoftu
-politico-religious centers (royal camps and garrison towns )
e.g. AA, Gore, Gobba.
 6.5. External Relations

6.5.1. Agreements and Treaties

• Zemene-Mesafint ended of the 'close door policy’ that
was introduced by Emperor Fasiladas.
• Regional rulers made independent foreign contacts and
signed treaties.
• During the 19th c, the agents of these external relations were
mainly travelers.
Motives of Travelers:
•adventure and scientific research
•fostering friendship and trade relation.
•covert mission of colonialism.
•E.g. of traveler Henry Salt who reached the court of Ras
Wolde-Selassie of Tigray on 28 August 1805.
Relation increased
#During Tewodros
#Yohannis IV: preferred to solve peacefully with Egypt,
Sudan…e.g. Hewett /Adwa Treaty (3 June 1884 at Adwa).
#Menelik II
In terms of diplomatic relations and repulsing external threats,
Emperor Menilek II was more successful through
maintaining the balance among powerful forces of the period.
E.g. the Wuchale Treaty=2 May 1889, at Wuchale, Wollo
between Emperor Menilek II of Ethiopia and Antonelli on
behalf of Prime Minister Crispi of Italy.
•The treaty has twenty articles and was written both in
Amharic and Italian languages.
•The Italian version of Article III indicates the “effective
occupation” of Italy to legitimize its further expansion towards
the Mereb River.
• However, Article XVII has major difference in the two language
versions.
•While the Amharic version states that Ethiopia could optionally
conduct its foreign affairs through Italy, the Italian version
indicates that Menilek’s foreign contacts must be through the
agency of Italy.
•As a result, based on the Italian version of Article XVII, Italy
announced that all foreign powers had to deal with Ethiopia only
through Italy.
•European powers gave recognition to this Italian claim except
Russia.
•In January 1890, the Italian government formally declared
•Italian action to colonize Ethiopia through tricky treaties;
persuasion and the subversive methods failed.
•This was because Menilek publicly abrogated the Wuchale
Treaty in February 1893 and Tigrian lords including Ras
Mangasha Yohannes, Ras Sebhat Aragawi and Dajjach Hagos
Tafari, began to fight against the Italians collaborating with
Emperor Menilek.
• Italian determination to occupy Ethiopia and Ethiopian
resistance against colonialism led to the battle.
•This finally led to the Battle of Adwa, where the latter
became victorious.
•After the victory of Adwa, different foreign countries opened
their legations at Addis Ababa to establish relations on official
basis.
•International politics of the twentieth century also shaped
Ethiopia’s foreign relations.
•For instance, during the First World War (1914-18) Lij Iyasu
showed a tendency to side with the Central Powers (Germany,
Austro-Hungary, Bulgaria and Ottoman Empire) believing that the
defeat of the Allied powers (France and Britain) would allow
Ethiopia to push Italy out of Eritrea and Somalia.
•He also befriended the Somali nationalist leader, Sayyid
Mohammed Abdille Hassan, against Italy and Britain.
•Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassan (1864-1920) led the
Somali against the European occupation.
•In the history of the Somali, he is recognized as a forerunner
of modern Somali nationalism.
•One of the successes of Ethiopia’s foreign relation in the
early 20th c was her admission to the League of Nations in
1923.
•A year later, Teferi made his grand European tour, which
shaped his ideas of modernization.
•Ethiopia’s entry into the League of Nations, however, did not
save her from Italian invasion in 1935/36.
 6. 5. 2. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors
and Patriotism
Ethiopian people fought several battles against foreign threats
during the period under discussion. There were
patriotism,
determination and cooperation
 the successes and limitations of Ethiopian peoples in the
course of defending their country.
A. The Battle of Dabarki (1848): Dabarki was fought
between Kasa Hailu of Qwara and Egyptian forces in
1848.
B. The Battle of Maqdela (1868): British Vs Tewodros II
C. The Battles of Gundet (16 November 1875) & Gura (7–9
March, 1876)
Egypt Vs Ethiopia
-Emperor Yohannis & Ras Alula among leading figures.
-It is important to understand some Europeans were in the
service of Egyptians.
For instance, the architect of the whole of Ismail’s plan,
Werner Munzinger, was a Swiss born adventurer and former
French Consul in Northeast Africa.
Colonel Arendrup himself was a Danish Citizen, and General
Charles Stone was fellow American.
D. The Battle of Dogali (1887)
-Italy vs Ras Alula
E. The Battle of Metemma (9March 1889)
 የኢትዮጵያ ህዝብ ሆይ ኢትዮጵያ የተባለችዉ ሀገር: 1ኛ እናትህ ናት፤
2ኛ ክብርህ ናት፤ 3ኛ ሚስትህ ናት፤4ኛ ልጅህ ናት፤5ኛ መቃብርህ ናት።
እንግዲህ የእናትን ፍቅር፣ የዘዉድን ክብር፣የሚስትን የዋህነት፣ የልጅን
ደስታ፣ የመቃብርን ከባቲነት አስበህ ተነስ!
#Internal divisions and acrimonies among rulers would result
in a huge cost to the country and its peoples.
Among others, Maqdela and Metemma are very good
testimonies.
F. The Battle of Adwa (1 March 1896 and Its Aftermath
Ethiopia vs Italy
-Fundamental cause= Italian colonial ambition and Ethiopian
commitment to defend sovereignty.
-Immediate cause=Article XVII of the Wuchale Traety.
Prominent Leaders of the Battle of Adwa include:
• Emperor Menilek,
• Empress Taiytu
•war generals like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras
Mangasha, Negus Tekle-Haymanot, Fitawrari Gebeyehu
Gurmu.
Reasons for Ethiopian victory include:
-unity of Ethiopians irrespective of gender, regional, and
ethnic differences.
Consequences of Adwa include:
a positive implication for success and national integration.
 witnessed independence and national pride for Ethiopians,
Africans and Black race in general.
Encouraged Africans fighting against colonialism.
The well-known Pan-Africanist, Marcus Garvey, inspired
his followers in his “Back to Africa” movement with the
success of Ethiopians (Pan-Africanism Movement).
Ethiopianism became a symbol of anti-colonial movements.
6. 5. 3. Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic
Resistance
• After their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the Italians were just
waiting the right time to fulfill their interests in any possible
way.
• The Fascists were determined to avenge Italy’s shameful
scar at Adwa.
• Italians followed two policies as it was the case before the
Battle of Adwa; ‘subversion’ and ‘rapprochement’.
• Italians made all necessary preparations to invade Ethiopia.
• They were searching for a pretext and then fortunately they
found it in Walwal Incident (5 December 1934).
• The Italians crossed the Mereb River on 3 October 1935.
• Adigrat, Adwa and Mekelle In January 1936, Ethiopian
counter offensive marched north.
• On 20 January 1936, the Ethiopian army launched a major
offensive against the Italians.
• A series of battles between the Ethiopian and Italian forces
in the northern Front culminated in Maychew on 31 March
1936.
• The Ethiopian army (especially members of the Kebur
Zebegna) under the command of the Emperor was unable to
conclude the battle with victory.
• Then the Italian forces controlled Dessie and Addis Ababa
on 4 April 1936 and 5 May 1936, respectively.
• The Ethiopian army in the Southern Front was better
equipped and well led.
• The Ethiopian army lost to the Italians at two major battles
in the Southern Front:
• Qorahe (November 1935) and Genale Dorya (12-14
January 1936).
• On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country.
• B/n Haile Selassie’s departure and the Italian entry, Addis
Ababa was beset by burning of buildings, looting and
random shooting.
• Many foreigners saved their lives by taking refuge in
foreign legations.
• The Italians were able to bring peace and order to the city.
• Mussolini announced that “Ethiopia is Italian!”
• Then Italian East Africa (IEA) or Africa Orientale Italiana
(AOI) was declared with six administrative regional
divisions.
• Eritrea (including Tigray) at Asmara;
• Amhara at Gondar;
• Oromo and Sidama (including Southern and Southwestern
provinces) at Jimma;
• Eastern Ethiopia with its capital at Harar;
• Somalia (including Ogaden) with its capital at Mogadishu;
• Addis Ababa (later changed to Shewa), the capital of the
entire Italian East Africa.
• AOI was govrned by these successuve personnels:
– Marshal Badoglio (till the end of May 1936),
– Marshal Graziani (till February 1937),
– And finally Amadeo Umberto da Aosta (the Duke of
Aosta).
• A top-heavy bureaucracy and corruption
characterized the Italian administration of IEA.
• The Italians were relatively successful in the sectors of
trade and industry as compared to the agricultural sector.
• Italian legacy was also largely reflected in the towns than
the rural areas, which were actually out of the Italian
effective rule.
• Generally, the legacy of the Italian rule can be summarized
in the following brief points:
• Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in towns
such as Addis Ababa, Jimma, Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar,
Asmara, Mogadishu and others.
• Introduction of urban facilities like clean water and
electricity;
• Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of
European habits-including eating and dressing styles, and
adoption of Italian words);
• The consolidation of cash economy;
• Road construction and development of motor transport;
The Patriotic Resistance Movement
 Ethiopian patriots continued their resistance in almost all
regions and by all ethnic groups of the empire with varying
degree of intensification. Here is list of famous patriots that
organized resistance against Fascist occupation.
Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Beyene Merid and Dejjach Gebre
Maryam Gari, Asfawesen Kasa, Aberra kasa, Dejjach Balcha
Safo, Balambaras, Abebe Aregay, and Dejjach Fikre-Mariam
Yinnnadu, Abune Petros, Abreha Deboch, Moges Asgedom,
Dejjazmach Umar Samatar, Colonel Abdisa Aga, Dejjazmach
Belay Zeleke, Dejjazmach Gebrehiwot Meshesha, Dejjazmach
Abbbai Kahsay, Woizero Shewareged Gedle, Zeray Dires,
Colonel Jagama Kello, Woizero Sinidu Gebru, Ras Amoraw
Wubneh,
Lij Haile Mariam Mamo, Ras Abebe Aregay, Dejjazmach Habte
Mariam, Colonel Belay Haile-ab, Major Matias Gemeda, Captain
Yosef Nesibu, Blatta Takele Wolde-Hawaryat, Dejjach Geresu
Duki, Bekele Woya
Lekyelesh Beyan, Kebedech Seyoum, Shewareged Gedle ans so
many others.
• The resistance was handicapped by the Ethiopian collaborators
called the Banda.
• In1940, London recognized the Emperor as a full ally.
• In January 1941, Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate led the
Gedeon Force ans accompanied the Emperor from the Sudan
into Gojjam.
• Major General Sir William Platt attacked the Italians in Eritrea.
• General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya.
• Haile-Selassie entered Addis Ababa on 5 May 1941