The Peripheral Nervous

System: Efferent Division

• The autonomic nervous system (ANS)
innervates cardiac and smooth muscle, most
exocrine glands and some endocrine glands.

• The ANS releases only two different

neurotransmitters on the structures it
controls: acetylcholine and norepinephrine.

• An autonomic nerve pathway has two

neurons: a preganglionic fiber and
postganglionic fiber.
The two subdivisions of the ANS
are the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous
systems.
• Sympathetic nerve fibers originate from the thoracic
and lumbar levels of the spinal cord.
• Its preganglionic fibers are short. Its postganglionic
fibers are long, terminating at effectors.
• Parasympathetic nerve fibers originate from the
cranial and sacral levels of the CNS.
• Its preganglionic fibers are long. Its postganglionic
fibers are short, terminating at effectors. There are
terminal ganglia near effector organs.
An autonomic ganglion is between the
preganglionic and postganglionic fibers of
an autonomic pathway. The preganglionic
fibers of both branches of the ANS release
acetylcholine (ACh).

• Parasympathetic
postganglionic fibers
release ACh. They are
cholinergic fibers.
• Sympathetic
postganglionic fibers
release noradrenalin
(norepinephrine). They
are adrenergic fibers.
 The ANS controls the
involuntary responses of
visceral organs.
• These responses range from
circulation and digestion to
sweating and urination.
• The visceral organs receive
dual innervation. They are
signaled by both subdivisions
of the ANS.
• Usually both subdivisions are
active in controlling the
activity of an internal organ.
This ongoing activity is
called sympathetic or
parasympathetic tone
activity.
The sympathetic dominates
during the fight-or-flight response.
Examples of these responses are:
• pupils of the eye dilate
• sweating is promoted
• heart rate increase
• bronchioles dilate
• motility for digestion is inhibited
• liver: conversion of glycogen into
glucose
• urination is inhibited
• These responses prepare the body for
emergency or stressful situations.
The parasympathetic
dominates during quiet,
relaxed situations.
• The responses signaled by this
subdivision is usually the opposite
(e.g., decreased heart rate) or none
(no activity of glucose production
from the liver).
• Dual, reciprocal innervation allows
the precise control over the activity
of a visceral organ.
There are several
exceptions to the general
rule of dual, reciprocal
innervation.
• Most innervated blood vessels
(arterioles and veins) receive only
sympathetic nerve fibers.
• Most sweat glands are innervated only
by sympathetic nerves.
• Both ANS subdivisions stimulate the
activity of salivary glands.
• As another exception, the adrenal
medulla is a gland that evolved from
postganglionic neurons.
Each autonomic
neurotransmitter binds to
several different receptors.
• Cholinergic receptors bind to ACh.
• Nicotinic receptors are found on the postganglionic
cells bodies of all autonomic ganglia. These ganglia
are found where the preganglionic neuron signals the
postganglionic neuron.
• Muscarinic receptors bind to ACh from
parasympathetic postganglionic nerve fibers.
• Adrenergic receptors bind to norepinephrine and
epinephrine from sympathetic postganglionic fibers.
• Activation of alpha 1 receptors usually produces an
excitatory response in the effector. Activation of
alpha 2 receptors usually produce an inhibitory
response
• Beta 1 receptors are found mainly in the heart. They
cause an excitatory response. The response to beta 2
receptor activation is general inhibitory.
Certain drugs selectively
enhance or mimic
autonomic responses.
They are agonists.
• Other drugs block autonomic
responses. They are antagonists.
• Autonomic activities are controlled
by different areas of the CNS. They
include the spinal cord, medulla,
hypothalamus, and prefrontal
association cortex.
The somatic nervous system
signals skeletal muscles. One
axon in its nerves from the spinal
cord terminate on skeletal
muscles.
• Acetylcholine is the terminal
neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular
junction. This junction is where the axon of
a somatic efferent neuron signals a skeletal
muscle fiber (cell).
• The axon terminates at a terminal button. The
motor end plate is the specialized part of the
muscle cell membrane facing the terminal button.
• Somatic motor neurons are the final
common pathway. Skeletal muscle activity
can be affected only by acting on these
motor neurons.
Acetylcholine is released
at the neuromuscular
junction.
• An action potential at the axon terminal opens voltage-
gated calcium channels in the terminal button. Calcium
ions diffuse into the terminal button from the ECF.
• By this calcium influx, acetylcholine is released by
exocytosis from vesicles in the terminal button.
• Acetylcholine diffuses through the space between the
nerve cell and muscle cell.
• This neurotransmitter binds to receptor sites on the motor
end plate of the muscle cell membrane.
• This binding opens channels for sodium influx into the ICF
of the muscle cell.
• This produces a local current flow that opens adjacent
sodium channels in the motor end plate.
• An action potential is initiated through the muscle fiber.
Acetylcholinesterase
destroys acetylcholine.
This terminates the action
potential and response of
the muscle cell.
• The neuromuscular junction is
vulnerable to several chemical
agents and diseases.
• Examples are:
• Two toxins, black widow spider venom
and botulinum toxin, alter the release of
acetylcholine.
• Curare blocks the effect of released