DIGITAL IMAGE

PROCESSING
 DIGITAL IMAGE
PROCESSING

Chapter 2 - Digital Image

Fundamentals
 Road map of chapter 2

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

2.1- Elements of Visual Perception

2.2-Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
An Introduction
Some
Light
Image Basic
and
Sensing
Sampling
the to the
Relationships
electromagnetic
and
and 2.3- Image Sensing and Acquisition
Elements of Visual
Mathematical Perception
PixelsTools Used in
2.4- Image Sampling and Quantization
Spectrum
Between
Acquisition
Quantization 2.5- Some Basic Relationships Between Pixels
Digital Image Processing 2.6-An Introduction to the Mathematical Tools Used in
Digital Image Processing
2.1 Elements of Visual Perception
 Elements of Visual Perception

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Structure of the Human Eye
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Image Formation in the Eye

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Brightness Adaptation and Discrimination

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Elements of Visual Perception
(Preview)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception DIP is built on a foundation of mathematical and probabilistic
formulations, But, human intuition and analysis play a central role
2.2- Light and the in the choice of one technique versus another, and this choice often
Electromagnetic is made based on subjective, visual judgments. Hence, a basic
Spectrum
understanding of human visual perception is appropriate.
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition We cover the most rudimentary aspects of human vision.
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization We focus on the:
2.5- Some Basic
mechanics and parameters related to how images are formed
Relationships in the eye.
Between Pixels physical limitations of human vision in terms of factors that
also are used in digital images.
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical Factors such as: how human and electronic imaging
Tools Used in Digital compare in terms of resolution and ability to adapt to
Image Processing
changes in illumination and to from a practical point of
view.
 Elements of Visual Perception

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Structure of the Human Eye
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Image Formation in the Eye

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Brightness Adaptation and Discrimination

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
‫تنظیم دوربین تصویر برداری از چشم‬
‫)طرز قرار دادن سر بیمار(‬
 Vessels

Macula

Optic Disc
 ‫مدهای تصویر برداری شبکیه‬

‫تصویر رنگی‬ ‫تصویر سبز‬ ‫تصویر اتو فلورسنس‬

)Fundus Images( Red-Free (RF ( AF

FA-ICG FA-ICG FA-ICG

‫فاز اول‬ ‫فاز دوم‬ ‫فاز سوم‬

‫تصویرآنژیوگرافیک‬
Fluoroscein Angiography10
(FA)
Indocyanine Green Chorioangiography (ICG)
 ‫‪Structure of the Human Eye‬‬

‫‪2.1- Elements of‬‬

‫‪Visual Perception‬‬
‫ميپوشاند‪.‬‬
‫داخلي ترين غشاء چشم شبکيه است که داخل بخش پشتي‪ ،‬کل ديوار را ‌‬
‫‪2.2- Light and the‬‬
‫‪Electromagnetic‬‬
‫‪Spectrum‬‬ ‫دو دسته از سلولها در چشم وجود دارند که وظيفه دريافت تصاوير را بر عهده دارند‪.‬‬
‫سلولهاي مخروطي و سلولهاي ميله اي‪.‬‬
‫‪2.3- Image Sensing‬‬
‫‪and Acquisition‬‬
‫سلولهاي مخروطي در منطقه اي که لکه زرد خوانده ميشود قرار دارند و نسبت به‬
‫‪2.4- Image Sampling‬‬ ‫رنگ بسيار حساسند‪ .‬انسانها مي توانند بوسيله اين سلولها جزئيات ريز را تشخيص‬
‫‪and Quantization‬‬ ‫دهند‪.‬‬
‫‪2.5- Some Basic‬‬
‫‪Relationships‬‬ ‫تعداد سلولهاي ميله اي بسيار بيشتر از سلولهاي مخروطي است و در سطح شبکيه‬
‫‪Between Pixels‬‬ ‫پخش شده اند‪.‬‬
‫‪2.6- An Introduction‬‬
‫‪to the Mathematical‬‬ ‫وسعت ناحيه پخش اين سلولها و اتصال چندين سلول به يک پايه عصبي از جزئيات‬
‫‪Tools Used in Digital‬‬ ‫تصوير مي‌کاهد‪.‬‬
‫‪Image Processing‬‬

‫در حالت کلي براي توليد تصوير کلي و کامل از ميدان ديد به کار مي روند‪.‬‬
 Structure of the Human Eye

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 ‫قرنيه‬
‫‪ ‬قرنيه قسمت شفاف جلوي كره چشم است كه از پشت آن ساختمان هاي داخلي تر كره چشم مثل‬
‫عنبيه و مردمك ديده مي شود‪ .‬قرنيه چشم را مي توان به شيشه پنجره تشبيه كرد‪ .‬همانطور كه‬
‫اگر شيشه پنجره كثيف باشد اشياء بيرون تار ديده مي شوند‪ ،‬اگر بر روي قرنيه كسي لكه يا‬
‫كدورتي وجود داشته باشد فرد اشياء را تار مي بيند‪ .‬به عالوه همانطور كه از پشت يك شيشه‬
‫موجدار يا مشجر اشياء كج و كوله و ناصاف ديده مي شوند‪ .‬در صورتي كه سطح قرنيه ناهموار‬
‫باشد اشياء ناصاف و تار ديده مي شوند‪ .‬البته قرنيه انسان يك تفاوت مهم با شيشه پنجره دارد و‬
‫آن هم اينكه شيشه پنجره يك سطح صاف است در حاليكه قرنيه بخشي از يك كره است‪ .‬اين‬
‫ساختمان كروي باعث مي شود كه قرنيه چشم مثل يك ذره بين عمل كند و نورهايي را كه از‬
‫محيط خارج وارد كره چشم مي شوند به صورت پرتوهاي همگرا درآورد كه تصوير واضحي‬
‫روي شبكيه ايجاد كنند‪ .‬البته در همه افراد اين امر به صورت دقيق اتفاقي نمي افتد‪ .‬مثًال اگر‬
‫انحناي قرنيه كسي بيشتر از حد طبيعي باشد تصاوير به جاي آنكه روي پرده شبكيه بيفتد در‬
‫جلوي پرده شبكيه تشكيل مي شود‪ .‬چنين فردي نزديك بين (ميوپ) است‪ .‬همچنين اگر انحناي‬
‫قرنيه كسي كمتر از حد طبيعي باشد تصاوير به جاي آنكه روي پرده شبكيه بيفتند در پشت آن‬
‫تشكيل مي شوند‪ .‬چنين فردي دوربين (هيپروپ) است‪ .‬به طوري كه مي بينيم قرنيه افراد نقش‬
‫مهمي در تعيين دوربيني يا نزديك بيني يا شماره چشم افراد دارد‪ .‬به همين علت اكثر روش هاي‬
‫جراحي براي اصالح ديد و شماره عينك روي اين بخش از چشم انجام مي گيرد‪ .‬مثًال در روش‬
‫هاي ليزر (‪ ،)PRK‬ليزيك(‪ ،)LASIK‬الزك(‪ )LASEK‬و جراحي با تيغه الماس (‪ )RK‬مقدار‬
‫انحناي قرنيه تغيير مي كند و شماره چشم فرد اصالح مي شود‪ .‬همچنين استفاده از لنز تماسي‬
‫(كنتاكت لنز) كمك مي كند كه انحناي قرنيه فرد موقتًا به اندازه مطلوب برسد و ديد فرد اصالح‬
‫شود‪.‬‬
 ‫ساختمان چشم انسان‬

‫عنبيه و مردمك‬

‫عنبيه‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫عنبيه بخش رنگي پشت قرنيه است كه رنگ چشم افراد را تعيين مي كند‪ .‬رنگ اين‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫بخش در چشم افراد مختلف متفاوت است و از آبي و سبز تا عسلي و قهوه اي تغيير مي‬
‫كند‪.‬‬
‫مردمك‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫در وسط عنبيه سوراخي به نام مردمك وجود دارد كه مقدار نور وارد شده به چشم را‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫تنظيم مي كند‪ .‬كار مردمك مثل پرده اي است كه پشت پنجره آويزان شده و نور ورودي‬
‫به اتاق را كم و زياد مي كند‪ .‬همانطور كه وقتي نور خارج شديد و زياد باشد‪ ،‬پرده را‬
‫مي بنديم تا نور كمتري به اتاق وارد شود‪ ،‬وقتي چشم در محيط پر نور قرار مي گيرد‬
‫مردمك تنگ مي شود تا مقدار نور كمتري وارد چشم شود‪ .‬به همين صورت وقتي چشم‬
‫در محيط كم نور قرار مي گيرد مردمك گشاد مي شود تا نور بيشتري وارد چشم شود‪.‬‬
‫برگشت‬
 ‫ساختمان چشم انسان‬

‫اتاق قدامي‬

‫‪ ‬اتاق قدامي فضاي كوچكي است كه بين قرنيه و عنبيه قرار دارد‪ .‬در اين‬
‫فضا مايعي به نام زالليه جريان دارد كه به شستشو و تغذيه بافت هاي‬
‫داخل چشم كمك مي كند‪ .‬همانطور كه در يك استخر براي پاك ماندن‬
‫استخر مرتبًا مقداري آب خارج مي شود و به جاي آن آب تصفيه شده‬
‫وارد مي شود‪ ،‬در چشم هم مرتبًا مقداري از مايع زالليه خارج مي شود‬
‫و مايع زالليه جديدي كه در چشم توليد شده است جايگزين آن مي شود‪.‬‬
‫اگر به هر دليلي تعادل بين توليد و خروج اين مايع به هم بخورد مقدار‬
‫مايع زالليه در چشم افزايش پيدا مي كند و فشار داخل كره چشم از حد‬
‫طبيعي بيشتر مي شود‪( .‬مقدار طبيعي فشار چشم در افراد بالغ بين ‪ 10‬تا‬
‫‪ 21‬ميلي متر جيوه است)‪ .‬باال رفتن فشار چشم به پرده شبكيه و عصب‬
‫بينايي آسيب مي زند و باعث بيماري آب سياه يا گلوكوم مي شود‪.‬‬
 ‫ساختمان چشم انسان‬

‫عدسي‬
‫‪ ‬عدسي يك ساختمان شفاف در پشت عنبيه است كه در متمركز كردن دقيق‬
‫پرتوهاي نور بر روي شبكيه به قرنيه كمك مي كند‪ .‬ضخامت عدسي چشم در‬
‫شرايط مختلف تغيير مي كند و بسته به آنكه شيء مورد نظر در چه فاصله اي از‬
‫فرد قرار داشته باشد ضخامت عدسي كم و زياد مي شود‪ .‬بنابراين فرد مي تواند‬
‫اشياء را در فواصل مختلف (از بي نهايت تا حدود ‪ 20‬سانتي متري و گاهي‬
‫نزديك تر) به طور واضح ببيند‪ .‬هرچه سن افراد بيشتر مي شود قدرت تغيير شكل‬
‫عدسي كمتر مي شود به طوري كه در حدود سن ‪ 40‬سالگي قدرت تغيير شكل‬
‫عدسي آنقدر كم مي شود كه اكثر افراد براي ديدن اشياء نزديك و انجام كارهايي‬
‫مثل مطالعه و خياطي به عينك كمكي براي ديد نزديك (عينك مطالعه) نياز پيدا مي‬
‫كنند‪ .‬اين همان حالتي است كه به آن پير چشمي گفته مي شود‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬با گذشت سن عالوه بر آنكه قدرت تغيير شكل عدسي كم مي شود ميزان شفافيت‬
‫عدسي هم كم مي شود‪ .‬گاهي كدورت عدسي آنقدر زياد مي شود كه مثل پرده اي‬
‫ديد فرد را تار مي كند‪ .‬اين كدورت عدسي را اصطالحًا آب مرواريد يا كاتاراكت‬
‫مي گويند‪.‬‬
 ‫ساختمان چشم انسان‬

‫زجاجيه‬

‫‪ ‬زجاجيه مايع ژله مانند شفافي است كه داخل كره چشم را پر مي كند و به‬
‫آن شكل مي دهد‪ ..‬زجاجيه از پشت عدسي تا روي پرده شبكيه وجود‬
‫دارد‪ ..‬با گذشت سن ساختمان ژله مانند زجاجيه تغيير مي كند و در بعضي‬
‫جاها حالت آبكي پيدا مي كند‪ .‬در اين حال بعضي قسمت هاي زجاجيه‬
‫شفافيت خود را از دست مي دهد و سايه اي روي پرده شبكيه مي اندازد‬
‫كه فرد آن را به صورت اجسام شناور كوچكي مي بيند كه مثل مگس در‬
‫ميدان بينايي باال و پايين مي روند‪ .‬اين حالت اصطالحًا مگس پران گفته‬
‫مي شود‪.‬‬
 ‫ساختمان چشم انسان‬

‫شبكيه‬

‫‪ ‬شبكيه يك پرده نازك حساس به نور (شبيه فيلم عكاسي) است كه در عقب كره چشم‬
‫قرار دارد‪ .‬پرتوهاي نوري كه به شبكيه برخورد مي كنند به پيام هاي عصبي تبديل‬
‫مي شوند كه از طريق عصب بينايي به مغز منتقل مي شوند و در مغز تفسير مي‬
‫شوند‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬در شبكيه انسان انواع مختلفي از سلول هاي گيرنده نوري وجود دارد كه ميزان‬
‫حساسيت آن ها به نور متفاوت است‪ .‬گيرنده هاي نوري استوانه اي بيشتر براي ديد‬
‫در محيط هاي تاريك به كار مي روند‪ .‬گيرنده هاي مخروطي براي تشخيص رنگ و‬
‫جزئيات ظريف تمايز يافته اند‪ .‬ترتيب قرار گيري اين سلول ها در شبكيه طوري است‬
‫كه در ناحيه مركزي شبكيه (ماكوال) تعداد گيرنده هاي مخروطي بيشتر است‪.‬‬
‫بنابراين وقتي فردي به صورت مستقيم به شيئي نگاه مي كند تصوير آن شيء‬
‫مستقيمًا روي ماكوال در جايي مي افتد كه تعداد سلول هاي مخروطي بيشتر است و‬
‫در نتيجه شيء با وضوح بيشتري مشاهده مي شود‪.‬‬
 Structure of the Human Eye

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Structure of the Human Eye

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Structure of the Human Eye

2.1- Elements of Cornea is a transparent structure that

Visual Perception Pupil allows varying
covers the iris and pupil
amounts of light to
2.2- Light and the enter the eye.
Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Retina includes

and Acquisition - Rods (94%)
2.4- Image Sampling Lens helps to focus (light sensitive)
and Quantization light on the retina.
- Cones (6%)
2.5- Some Basic (color sensitive)
Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical Cones are
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
concentrated in
the center of the
retina - the fovea
 Structure of the Human Eye

2.1- Elements of Rods are thin cells with slender rodlike projections that are the photoreceptors
Visual Perception for:
Black and white vision
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic Vision in dim light
Spectrum
Cones are the receptors for:
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition
Color vision
Visual acuity
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization There are three types of cones, each with a different visual pigment
One sensitive to green light
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships One sensitive to blue light
Between Pixels One sensitive to red light

2.6- An Introduction The perceived color of an object depends on the quantity and combination of
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital cones that are stimulated
Image Processing
In very dim light, cones do not function
 Structure of the Human Eye

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Cons and Rods Distribution
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Structure of the Human Eye

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the Color blindness occurs because there is an absence or deficiency
Electromagnetic of one or more of the visual pigments in the cones. So the person
Spectrum
cannot distinguish certain colors.
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition Retina also contains the macula lutea which is a small pigmented
area made up of closely packed cones that is responsible for
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization central vision.

2.5- Some Basic The fovea centralis is the center of the macula lutea and the area
Relationships
Between Pixels with the highest concentration of cones.

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Structure of the Human Eye

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Structure of the Human Eye

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Structure of the Human Eye

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Elements of Visual Perception

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Structure of the Human Eye
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Image Formation in the Eye

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Brightness Adaptation and Discrimination

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Image Formation in the Eye

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Example:
2.2- Light and the Calculation of retinal image of an object
Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital 15/100=h/17 or h=2.55 mm
Image Processing
 Elements of Visual Perception

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Structure of the Human Eye
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Image Formation in the Eye

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Brightness Adaptation and Discrimination

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Brightness Adaptation and
Discrimination

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Range of light intensity levels to which HVS (human visual
Electromagnetic system) can adapt: on the order of 10 10.
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Subjective brightness (i.e. intensity as perceived by the HVS) is a
and Acquisition logarithmic function of the light intensity incident on the eye.
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization The HVS cannot operate over such a range simultaneously.

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
For any given set of conditions, the current sensitivity level of
Between Pixels HVS is called the brightness adaptation level.

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Brightness Adaptation and
Discrimination

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
The eye also discriminates between changes in brightness at any
2.2- Light and the specific adaptation level.
Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing I c

and Acquisition  Weber ratio
2.4- Image Sampling
I
and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships Where: Ic: the increment of illumination discriminable 50% of
Between Pixels
the time
2.6- An Introduction I : background illumination
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Brightness Adaptation and
Discrimination

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical Range of subjective Typical Weber ratio
Tools Used in Digital brightness sensations as a function of
Image Processing
showing a particular intensity
adaptation level
 Brightness Adaptation and
Discrimination

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Basic Experimental setup

and Acquisition used to characterize
brightness discrimination
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Brightness Adaptation and
Discrimination

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the Small values of Weber ratio mean good brightness discrimination
Electromagnetic
Spectrum (and vice versa).

2.3- Image Sensing At low levels of illumination brightness discrimination is poor

and Acquisition
(rods) and it improves significantly as background illumination
2.4- Image Sampling increases (cones).
and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

The typical observer can discern one to two dozen different
Relationships intensity changes
Between Pixels i.e. the number of different intensities a person can see at
2.6- An Introduction
any one point in a monochrome image
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Brightness Adaptation and
Discrimination

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the Overall intensity discrimination is broad due to different set of
Electromagnetic
Spectrum incremental changes to be detected at each new adaptation level.

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition
Perceived brightness is not a simple function of intensity
Scalloped effect, Mach band pattern
2.4- Image Sampling Simultaneous contrast
and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Mach Bands Effect

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
‫ت در‬£‫ل اس‬£‫ائی مای‬£‫تم بین‬£‫سیس‬
2.2- Light and the ‫دت‬££‫ای ش‬££‫ه ه‬££‫رز ناحی‬££‫م‬
Electromagnetic ‫اال‬£‫ا ب‬£‫ائین ی‬£‫ه پ‬£‫ ب‬،‫ف‬£‫مختل‬
Spectrum
‫دت‬££‫ه ش‬££‫ گرچ‬.‫د‬££‫جهش کن‬
2.3- Image Sensing ‫ک‬££‫ ی‬،‫ت‬££‫ابت اس‬££‫ا ث‬££‫نواره‬
and Acquisition ‫افت‬£‫نائی را دری‬£‫وی روش‬£‫الگ‬
‫ک‬£‫دیدا در نزدی‬£‫ه ش‬£‫نیم ک‬£‫می ک‬
2.4- Image Sampling ‫ده‬£‫د دی‬££‫ره مانن‬££‫ا کنگ‬££‫مرزه‬
and Quantization
.‫میشود‬
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
Perceived Intensity is
to the Mathematical not a simple function
Tools Used in Digital of actual intensity.
Image Processing
 Simultaneous Contrast

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels .‫ ارتباط ساده ای با شدت آن ندارد‬،‫ روشنائی دریافتی ناحیه‬: ‫کنتراست همزمان‬
2.6- An Introduction ‫ا در‬£‫ود آنه‬£‫نتر می ش‬£‫ه روش‬£‫ه زمین‬£‫ر چ‬£‫ا ه‬£‫د ام‬£‫انی دارن‬£‫دت یکس‬£‫زی ش‬£‫ای مرک‬£‫ع ه‬£‫ام مرب‬£‫تم‬
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital .‫چشم تیره تر دیده میشوند‬
Image Processing
 Optical Illusions

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
‫ه‬£‫ت ک‬£‫ده ایس‬£‫وری پدی‬£‫توهم ن‬
2.2- Light and the ‫ر‬£‫اتی پ‬£‫ا اطالع‬£‫م ب‬£‫در آن چش‬
Electromagnetic
Spectrum ‫ا‬£‫دارد ی‬£‫ود ن‬£‫ه وج‬£‫ود ک‬£‫می ش‬
‫واص‬£‫ت خ‬£‫ور نادرس‬£‫ه ط‬£‫ب‬
2.3- Image Sensing ‫افت می‬£‫یا را دری‬£‫ی اش‬£‫هندس‬
and Acquisition .‫کند‬
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 2.2 Light and the
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Light and the Electromagnetic
Spectrum (1)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
In 1666, Sir Isaac Newton discovered that when a beam of
2.2- Light and the sunlight is passed through a glass prism, the emerging beam of
Electromagnetic light is not white but consists instead of a continuous spectrum
Spectrum
of colors ranging from violet at one end to red at the other.
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition The range of colors we perceive in visible light represents a very
small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization
On one end of the spectrum are radio waves with wavelengths
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships
billions of times longer than those of visible light.
Between Pixels
On the other end of the spectrum are gamma rays with
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical wavelengths millions of times smaller than those of visible light.
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Light and the Electromagnetic
Spectrum (2)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
=
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization
The electromagnetic spectrum can be expressed in terms of
wavelength, frequency, or energy.
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships •
Between Pixels h is Planck’s constant.
• The units of wavelength are meters, with the terms microns and
2.6- An Introduction nanometers being used just as frequently.
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital • Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), with one Hertz being
Image Processing equal to one cycle of a sinusoidal wave per second.
• unit of energy is the electron-volt.
 ‫‪Light and the Electromagnetic‬‬
‫)‪Spectrum (3‬‬

‫‪2.1- Elements of‬‬

‫‪Visual Perception‬‬

‫‪2.2- Light and the‬‬

‫‪Electromagnetic‬‬ ‫ام‪£‬واج الکترومغناطیس‪£‬ی را می ت‪£‬وان پخش ام‪£‬واج سینوس‪£‬ی در نظ‪£‬ر گ‪£‬رفت ک‪£‬ه ط‪£‬ول‬
‫‪Spectrum‬‬ ‫موج آنها ‪ λ‬است‪.‬‬
‫‪2.3- Image Sensing‬‬
‫‪and Acquisition‬‬ ‫آنه‪£‬ا را میت‪£‬وان جری‪£‬انی از ذرات ب‪£‬دون ج‪£‬رم دانس‪£‬ت ک‪£‬ه ه‪£‬ر ک‪£‬دام ب‪£‬ه ص‪£‬ورت ی‪£‬ک‬
‫الگوی شبیه موج با سرعت نور حرکت می کنند‪.‬‬
‫‪2.4- Image Sampling‬‬
‫‪and Quantization‬‬
‫هر ذره بدون جرم شامل مقداری انرژی است‪.‬‬
‫‪2.5- Some Basic‬‬
‫‪Relationships‬‬
‫‪Between Pixels‬‬ ‫هر بس‪£‬ته ان‪£‬رژی فوت‪£‬ون ن‪£‬ام دارد‪ .‬ل‪£‬ذا پدی‪£‬ده الکترومغن‪£‬اطیس ب‪£‬ا فرک‪£‬انس ب‪£‬االتر (ط‪£‬ول‬
‫موج کوتاهتر) انرژی بیشتری حمل می کند‪.‬‬
‫‪2.6- An Introduction‬‬
‫‪to the Mathematical‬‬
‫‪Tools Used in Digital‬‬
‫‪Image Processing‬‬
 Light and the Electromagnetic
Spectrum (4)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Light and the Electromagnetic
Spectrum (5)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Electromagnetic waves can be visualized as propagating
2.2- Light and the sinusoidal waves with wavelength, or they can be thought of as a
Electromagnetic stream of mass-less particles, each traveling in a wavelike pattern
Spectrum and moving at the speed of light. Each mass-less particle contains
2.3- Image Sensing
a certain amount (or bundle) of energy. Each bundle of energy is
and Acquisition called a photon.

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization
Energy is proportional to frequency,
Higher-frequency (shorter wavelength) electromagnetic
2.5- Some Basic phenomena carry more energy per photon.
Relationships
Between Pixels
Gamma rays are so dangerous to living organisms.
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Light and the Electromagnetic
Spectrum (Light)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the Light is a particular type of electromagnetic radiation that can be
Electromagnetic seen and sensed by the human eye.
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing The visible band of the electromagnetic spectrum spans the range
and Acquisition from approximately 0.43 micro m (violet) to about 0.79 micro m
2.4- Image Sampling
(red).
and Quantization
For convenience, the color spectrum is divided into six broad
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships
regions: Violet, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, and Red.
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 The Origins of Digital Image
Processing (color)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
The colors that humans perceive in an object are determined by
2.2- Light and the the nature of the light reflected from the object.
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
A body that reflects light and is relatively balanced in all visible
2.3- Image Sensing wavelengths appears white to the observer.
and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling A body that favors reflectance in a limited range of the visible
and Quantization
spectrum exhibits some shades of color.
2.5- Some Basic For example, green objects reflect light with wavelengths
Relationships primarily in the 500 to 570 nm range while absorbing most
Between Pixels of the energy at other wavelengths.
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 The Origins of Digital Image
Processing (Achromatic or Monochromatic)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the Light that is void of color is called achromatic or
Electromagnetic
Spectrum monochromatic light.

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition
The only attribute of such light is its intensity, or amount.

2.4- Image Sampling The term gray level generally is used to describe monochromatic
and Quantization
intensity because it ranges from black, to grays, and finally to
2.5- Some Basic white.
Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 The Origins of Digital Image
Processing (Chromatic light)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Chromatic light spans the electromagnetic energy spectrum from
Spectrum approximately 0.43 to 0.79 m, as noted previously.

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition ‫ار‬£‫ه ک‬£‫ور رنگی ب‬£‫ع ن‬£‫یف کیفیت منب‬£‫رای توص‬£‫ی ب‬£‫ه کمیت اساس‬£‫ س‬،‫انس‬£‫ر فرک‬£‫عالوه ب‬
: ‫می‌رود‬
2.4- Image Sampling ‫ میزان کل انرژی است که از منبع نور جاری می شود‬: ‫تابندگی‬
and Quantization
‫افت‬£‫ع دری‬£‫ده از منب‬£‫ه بینن‬£‫ت ک‬£‫رژی اس‬£‫یزان ان‬£‫رای م‬£‫اری ب‬£‫ معی‬:‫ندگی‬£‫درخش‬
2.5- Some Basic ‫میکند‬
Relationships ‫ یک توصیف ذهنی است که اندازه گیری آن غیرممکن است‬:‫روشنائی‬
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 The Origins of Digital Image
Processing (Chromatic light)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Radiance is the total amount of energy that flows from the light
2.2- Light and the source, and it is usually measured in watts (W).
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
Luminance, measured in lumens (lm), gives a measure of the
2.3- Image Sensing amount of energy an observer perceives from a light source.
and Acquisition
For example, light emitted from a source operating in the
2.4- Image Sampling far infrared region of the spectrum could have significant
and Quantization energy (radiance), but an observer would hardly perceive it;
its luminance would be almost zero.
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships
Between Pixels Brightness is a subjective descriptor of light perception that is
practically impossible to measure. It embodies the achromatic
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical notion of intensity and is one of the key factors in describing color
Tools Used in Digital sensation.
Image Processing
2.3 Image Sensing and
Acquisition
 Image Sensing and Acquisition

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Image Acquisition Using a Single Sensor
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Image Acquisition Using Sensor Strips

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Image Acquisition Using Sensor Arrays

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships A Simple Image Formation Model
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Introduction(1)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the Incoming energy is transformed into a voltage by the
Electromagnetic
Spectrum combination of input electrical power and sensor material that is
responsive to the particular type of energy being detected.
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition
The output voltage waveform is the response of the sensor(s),
2.4- Image Sampling and a digital quantity is obtained from each sensor by digitizing
and Quantization its response.
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Introduction(2)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the ‫ط‬£‫ توس‬،‫رژی ورودی‬£‫ان‬

Electromagnetic Single
‫تریکی‬£‫وان الک‬£‫رکیب ت‬£‫ت‬
Spectrum imaging
‫گری‬£‫اده حس‬£‫ورودی و م‬
Sensor
2.3- Image Sensing ‫وع‬£‫خیص ن‬£‫ئول تش‬£‫ه مس‬£‫ک‬
and Acquisition ‫ه‬£‫ ب‬،‫ت‬£‫رژی اس‬£‫ی ان‬£‫خاص‬
Line .‫ردد‬£‫دیل میگ‬£‫اژ تب‬£‫ک ولت‬£‫ی‬
2.4- Image Sampling Sensor ‫وج‬££‫روجی م‬££‫اژ خ‬££‫ولت‬
and Quantization
‫گرها‬££‫خ حس‬££‫ پاس‬،‫کل‬££‫ش‬
2.5- Some Basic
‫ک کمیت‬££‫ و ی‬،‫ت‬££‫اس‬
Relationships ‫گر‬£‫ر حس‬£‫ال از ه‬£‫دیجیت‬
Between Pixels ‫رای‬£‫ه ب‬£‫د ک‬£‫ت می آی‬£‫بدس‬
Array ‫خ آن‬£‫د پاس‬£‫ار بای‬£‫این ک‬
2.6- An Introduction Sensor .‫رقمی گردد‬
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Image Acquisition Using a Single
Sensor

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Image Sensing and Acquisition

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Image Acquisition Using a Single Sensor
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Image Acquisition Using Sensor Strips

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Image Acquisition Using Sensor Arrays

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships A Simple Image Formation Model
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Image Acquisition Using a Single
Sensor

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
The most familiar sensor of this type is the photodiode
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic
Spectrum It is constructed of silicon materials and whose output voltage
waveform is proportional to light.
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition
The use of a filter in front of a sensor improves selectivity. For
2.4- Image Sampling example, a green (pass) filter in front of a light sensor favors light
and Quantization in the green band of the color spectrum.
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships As a consequence, the sensor output will be stronger for green
Between Pixels light than for other components in the visible spectrum.
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Image Sensing and Acquisition

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Image Acquisition Using a Single Sensor
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Image Acquisition Using Sensor Strips

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Image Acquisition Using Sensor Arrays

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships A Simple Image Formation Model
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Image Acquisition Using Sensor Strips

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Image Sensing and Acquisition

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Image Acquisition Using a Single Sensor
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Image Acquisition Using Sensor Strips

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Image Acquisition Using Sensor Arrays

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships A Simple Image Formation Model
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Image Acquisition Using Sensor Arrays

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
‫‪Image Acquisition Using Sensor Arrays‬‬

‫‪2.1- Elements of‬‬

‫‪Visual Perception‬‬

‫‪2.2- Light and the‬‬ ‫روش اص‪£‬لی ب‪£‬ه ک‪£‬ارگیری آرای‪£‬ه ای از حس‪£‬گرها در ش‪£‬کل قب‪£‬ل آم‪£‬ده اس‪£‬ت‪ .‬این ش‪£‬کل‪،‬‬
‫‪Electromagnetic‬‬ ‫ان‪£‬رژی را از منب‪£‬ع روش‪£‬نائی نش‪£‬ان می ده‪£‬د ک‪£‬ه در ح‪£‬ال انعک‪£‬اس از ی‪£‬ک عنص‪£‬ر محیطی‬
‫‪Spectrum‬‬ ‫است‪.‬‬
‫‪2.3- Image Sensing‬‬
‫‪and Acquisition‬‬ ‫اولین ک‪£‬ار انج‪£‬ام ش‪£‬ده توس‪£‬ط سیس‪£‬تم تص‪£‬ویربرداری در این ش‪£‬کل جم‪£‬ع آوری ان‪£‬رژی‬
‫ورودی و متمرک‪£‬ز ک‪£‬ردن آن روی ص‪£‬فحه تص‪£‬ویر اس‪£‬ت‪ .‬اگ‪£‬ر روش‪£‬نائی ن‪£‬ور باش‪£‬د‪ ،‬بخش‬
‫‪2.4- Image Sampling‬‬
‫‪and Quantization‬‬
‫جل‪£‬وئی سیس‪£‬تم‪ ،‬ی‪£‬ک ل‪£‬نز ن‪£‬وری اس‪£‬ت ک‪£‬ه ص‪£‬حنه دی‪£‬ده ش‪£‬ده را روی ص‪£‬فحه ک‪£‬انونی ل‪£‬نز‬
‫تصویربرداری می کند‪.‬‬
‫‪2.5- Some Basic‬‬
‫‪Relationships‬‬
‫‪Between Pixels‬‬ ‫آرای‪£‬ه حس‪£‬گر‪ ،‬ک‪£‬ه مط‪£‬ابق ب‪£‬ا ص‪£‬فحه ک‪£‬انونی اس‪£‬ت‪ ،‬خ‪£‬روجی ه‪£‬ائی را تولی‪£‬د می کن‪£‬د ک‪£‬ه‬
‫متناسب با انتگرال نور دریافتی در هر حسگر است‪.‬‬
‫‪2.6- An Introduction‬‬
‫‪to the Mathematical‬‬
‫‪Tools Used in Digital‬‬
‫‪Image Processing‬‬
 Image Sensing and Acquisition

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Image Acquisition Using a Single Sensor
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Image Acquisition Using Sensor Strips

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Image Acquisition Using Sensor Arrays

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic A Simple Image Formation Model

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
‫‪A Simple Image Formation Model‬‬

‫‪2.1- Elements of‬‬

‫‪Visual Perception‬‬

‫‪2.2- Light and the‬‬ ‫تص‪£‬ویر را می ت‪£‬وان ی‪£‬ک ت‪£‬ابع دوبع‪£‬دی مث‪£‬ل )‪ f(x,y‬در نظ‪£‬ر گ‪£‬رفت ک‪£‬ه ‪ x‬و ‪y‬‬
‫‪Electromagnetic‬‬ ‫مختص‪£‬ات مک‪£‬انی هس‪£‬تند و دامن‪£‬ه ‪ f‬در ه‪£‬ر جفت از مختص‪£‬ات (‪ ،)x,y‬ش‪£‬دت ی‪£‬ا س‪£‬طح‬
‫‪Spectrum‬‬ ‫خاکس‪£‬تری تص‪£‬ویر در آن نقط‪£‬ه اس‪£‬ت‪ .‬وق‪£‬تی ‪ x‬و ‪ y‬و مق‪£‬دار ش‪£‬دت ‪ f‬متن‪£‬اهی و کمیت‬
‫هائی گسسته باشند‪ ،‬تصویر را تصویر دیجیتال می نامیم‪.‬‬
‫‪2.3- Image Sensing‬‬
‫‪and Acquisition‬‬
‫مق‪£‬دار ی‪£‬ا دامن‪£‬ه ‪ f‬در مختص‪£‬ات فض‪£‬ائی (‪ )x,y‬ی‪£‬ک کمیت اس‪£‬کالر مثبت اس‪£‬ت ک‪£‬ه معن‪£‬ای‬
‫‪2.4- Image Sampling‬‬ ‫ف‪£‬یزیکی آن توس‪£‬ط منب‪£‬ع تص‪£‬ویر مش‪£‬خص می ش‪£‬ود‪ .‬وق‪£‬تی تص‪£‬ویری از فراین‪£‬د ف‪£‬یزیکی‬
‫‪and Quantization‬‬
‫تولی‪£‬د می ش‪£‬ود‪ ،‬مق‪£‬ادیر ش‪£‬دت آن متناس‪£‬ب ب‪£‬ا ان‪£‬رژیی اس‪£‬ت ک‪£‬ه توس‪£‬ط منب‪£‬ع ف‪£‬یزیکی‬
‫‪2.5- Some Basic‬‬ ‫ساطع شده است‪ .‬در نتیجه )‪ f(x,y‬باید غیر صفر باشد‪.‬‬
‫‪Relationships‬‬
‫‪Between Pixels‬‬

‫‪2.6- An Introduction‬‬
‫‪to the Mathematical‬‬
‫‪Tools Used in Digital‬‬
‫‪Image Processing‬‬
A Simple Image Formation Model

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
:‫ می تواند با دو مولفه مشخص شود‬f(x,y) ‫تابع‬
2.2- Light and the .‫ود‬£‫اطع میش‬£‫ت س‬£‫دن اس‬£‫ال دی‬£‫ه در ح‬£‫فحه ای ک‬£‫ه روی ص‬£‫ع ک‬£‫نائی منب‬£‫میزان روش‬
Electromagnetic )‫(مولفه روشنائی‬
Spectrum
‫ه‬£‫ (مولف‬.‫حنه‬£‫ود در ص‬£‫یای موج‬£‫ط اش‬£‫ده توس‬£‫نائی منعکس ش‬£‫میزان روش‬
2.3- Image Sensing )‫انعکاسی‬
and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

f(x,y) = i(x,y)  r(x,y)
and Quantization 0 < i(x,y) < 
0 < r(x,y) < 1
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships (from total absorption to total reflectance)
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction Sample values of r(x,y):

to the Mathematical 0.01: black velvet
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing 0.93: snow
A Simple Image Formation Model

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the Intensity of a monochrome image f at (x 0,y0): gray level l of the
Electromagnetic image at that point
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing l=f(x0, y0)

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Lmin ≤ l ≤ Lmax

and Quantization
Where:
2.5- Some Basic Lmin: Positive
Relationships
Between Pixels Lmax: Finite

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
A Simple Image Formation Model

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
In practice:
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic Lmin = Imin rmin
Spectrum
Lmax = Imax rmax
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition e.g. for indoor image processing:
2.4- Image Sampling Lmin ≈ 10 Lmax ≈ 1000
and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic [Lmin, Lmax] : gray scale

Relationships Often shifted to [0,L-1]  l=0: black
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction l=L-1: white

to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
2.4 Image Sensing and
Acquisition
 Image Sampling and Quantization

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Basic Concepts in Sampling and Quantization
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Representing Digital Images

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Spatial and Intensity Resolution

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships Image Interpolation
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 ‫& ‪Basic concepts in Sampling‬‬
‫‪Quantization‬‬

‫‪2.1- Elements of‬‬

‫‪Visual Perception‬‬

‫‪2.2- Light and the‬‬

‫خروجی اغلب حس‪£‬گرها ی‪£‬ک ولت‪£‬اژ م‪£‬وج ش‪£‬کل اس‪£‬ت ک‪£‬ه دامن‪£‬ه و رفت‪£‬ار فض‪£‬ائی آن ب‪£‬ه‬
‫‪Electromagnetic‬‬ ‫پدی‪£‬ده ف‪£‬یزیکی ای ک‪£‬ه در ح‪£‬ال حس ش‪£‬ده اس‪£‬ت ارتب‪£‬اط دارد‪ .‬ب‪£‬رای ایج‪£‬اد تص‪£‬اویر‬
‫‪Spectrum‬‬ ‫دیجیت‪£‬ال‪ ،‬الزم اس‪£‬ت داده ه‪£‬ای حس ش‪£‬دۀ پیوس‪£‬ته ب‪£‬ه ش‪£‬کل دیجیت‪£‬ال در آی‪£‬د‪ .‬این ک‪£‬ار‬
‫شامل دو فرایند است ‪:‬‬
‫‪2.3- Image Sensing‬‬
‫‪and Acquisition‬‬ ‫نمونه برداری‬
‫کوانتیزه کردن‬
‫‪2.4- Image Sampling‬‬
‫‪and Quantization‬‬
‫شکل بع‪£‬د‪ ،‬تص‪£‬ویر پیوس‪£‬تۀ ‪ f‬را نش‪£‬ان میده‪£‬د ک‪£‬ه می خ‪£‬واهیم ب‪£‬ه ش‪£‬کل دیجیت‪£‬ال تب‪£‬دیل‬
‫‪2.5- Some Basic‬‬ ‫ک‪£‬نیم‪ .‬تص‪£‬ویر ممکن اس‪£‬ت نس‪£‬بت ب‪£‬ه مختص‪£‬ات ‪ x‬و ‪ y‬و ن‪£‬یز دامن‪£‬ه‪ ،‬پیوس‪£‬ته باش‪£‬د‪ .‬ب‪£‬رای‬
‫‪Relationships‬‬ ‫تب‪£‬دیل آن ب‪£‬ه ش‪£‬کل دیجیت‪£‬ال‪ ،‬بای‪£‬د ت‪£‬ابع را از نظ‪£‬ر مختص‪£‬ات و دامن‪£‬ه نمون‪£‬ه ب‪£‬رداری‬
‫‪Between Pixels‬‬
‫ک‪£‬نیم‪ .‬دیجیت‪£‬ال ک‪£‬ردن مق‪£‬ادیر را نمون‪£‬ه ب‪£‬رداری و دیجیت‪£‬ال ک‪£‬ردن دامن‪£‬ه را کوانت‪£‬یزه‬
‫‪2.6- An Introduction‬‬ ‫کردن می گویند‪.‬‬
‫‪to the Mathematical‬‬
‫‪Tools Used in Digital‬‬
‫‪Image Processing‬‬
 Basic concepts in Sampling &
Quantization

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Basic concepts in Sampling &
Quantization

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception .‫) را کوانتیزه کردن می گویند‬x,y( ‫اختصاص یک مقدار شدت به هر جفت از مختصات‬

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic ‫تصویر پیوسته روی آرایه حسگر‬ ‫نتیجه نمونه برداری و کوانتیزه کردن‬
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Sampling & Quantization

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Important terms for future discussion:
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic Z: set of real integers
Spectrum R: set of real numbers
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition Sampling: partitioning xy plane into a grid
the coordinate of the center of each grid is a pair of
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization elements from the Cartesian product Z x Z (Z 2)

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships Z2 is the set of all ordered pairs of elements (a,b) with a and b
Between Pixels being integers from Z.
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Sampling & Quantization

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
f(x,y) is a digital image if:
2.2- Light and the (x,y) are integers from Z2 and
Electromagnetic
Spectrum f is a function that assigns a gray-level value (from R) to
each distinct pair of coordinates (x,y) [quantization]
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition
Gray levels are usually integers
2.4- Image Sampling then Z replaces R
and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic The digitization process requires decisions about:

Relationships
Between Pixels values for N,M (where N x M: the image array)
the number of discrete gray levels allowed for each pixel.
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Sampling & Quantization

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the Usually, in DIP these quantities are integer powers of two:
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
N=2n M=2m and G=2k (number of
gray levels)
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition
Another assumption is that the discrete levels are equally spaced
2.4- Image Sampling between 0 and L-1 in the gray scale.
and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Image Sampling and Quantization

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Basic Concepts in Sampling and Quantization
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Representing Digital Images

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Spatial and Intensity Resolution

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships Image Interpolation
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Representing Digital Images

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 ‫‪Representing Digital Images‬‬

‫‪2.1- Elements of‬‬

‫‪Visual Perception‬‬ ‫بازه پوی‪£‬ای سیس‪£‬تم تص‪£‬ویربرداری ‪ :‬نس‪£‬بت‬
‫‪2.2- Light and the‬‬ ‫ح‪£‬داکثر ش‪£‬دت قاب‪£‬ل ان‪£‬دازه گ‪£‬یری ب‪£‬ه‬
‫‪Electromagnetic‬‬
‫‪Spectrum‬‬ ‫ح‪££‬داقل س‪££‬طح ش‪££‬دت ان‪££‬دازه‌‌گیری در‬
‫‪2.3- Image Sensing‬‬ ‫سیستم تعریف می شود‪.‬‬
‫‪and Acquisition‬‬
‫ب‪£‬ه عن‪£‬وان ی‪£‬ک ق‪£‬انون‪ ،‬ح‪£‬د ب‪£‬اال اش‪£‬باع و ح‪£‬د‬
‫‪2.4- Image Sampling‬‬
‫‪and Quantization‬‬ ‫پائین را نویز می‌گوئیم‪.‬‬
‫‪2.5- Some Basic‬‬
‫‪Relationships‬‬
‫کنتراس‪££‬ت ب‪££‬ه تف‪££‬اوت بین پ‪££‬ائین ت‪£‬رین و‬
‫‪Between Pixels‬‬
‫ب‪£‬االترین س‪£‬طوح ش‪£‬دت‪ ،‬ک‪£‬ه سیس‪£‬تم ق‪£‬ابلیت‬
‫‪2.6- An Introduction‬‬
‫‪to the Mathematical‬‬ ‫نمایش آن را دارد گفته میشود‪.‬‬
‫‪Tools Used in Digital‬‬
‫‪Image Processing‬‬ ‫تص‪£‬ویر ب‪£‬ا کنتراس‪£‬ت پ‪£‬ائین بیش‪£‬تر خاکس‪£‬تری‬
‫به نظر می‌رسد‪.‬‬
 Representing Digital Images

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
The number , b, of bits required to store a digitized image is:
2.2- Light and the b=M*N*K
Electromagnetic When M=N, this equation becomes
Spectrum
b = (N2)*K
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Image Sampling and Quantization

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Basic Concepts in Sampling and Quantization
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Representing Digital Images

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Spatial and Intensity Resolution

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships Image Interpolation
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception 1250DPI 300DPI

2.2- Light and the

‫ترین بخش‬£‫اری از کوچک‬£‫ معی‬: ‫ائی‬£‫دقت فض‬
Electromagnetic
Spectrum .‫قابل تمیز در تصویر است‬

2.3- Image Sensing ‫ه‬£‫وان ب‬£‫ائی را میت‬£‫ دقت فض‬،‫ر کمی‬£‫از نظ‬
and Acquisition
‫ای‬£‫ه جفته‬£‫رد ک‬£‫ان ک‬£‫های مختلفی بی‬£‫روش‬
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization
150DPI 72DPI
‫اط‬££‫ و نق‬،‫له‬££‫د فاص‬££‫ر واح‬££‫ط در ه‬££‫خ‬
2.5- Some Basic ‫داول‬£‫له مت‬£‫د فاص‬£‫ر واح‬£‫ل) در ه‬£‫(پیکس‬
Relationships
Between Pixels .‫ترین روشهاست‬
2.6- An Introduction ‫خیص‬£‫ل تش‬£‫یر قاب‬£‫ترین تغی‬£‫ کوچک‬: ‫دت‬£‫دقت ش‬
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital .‫در سطح شدت است‬
Image Processing
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
How many samples and gray levels are required for a good
2.2- Light and the approximation?
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
Resolution (the degree of discernible detail) of an image
2.3- Image Sensing depends on sample number and gray level number.
and Acquisition
i.e. the more these parameters are increased, the closer the
2.4- Image Sampling digitized array approximates the original image.
and Quantization But: storage & processing requirements increase rapidly as
a function of N, M, and k
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the Different versions (images) of the same object can be generated
Electromagnetic
Spectrum through:

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition
Varying N, M numbers
Varying k (number of bits)
2.4- Image Sampling Varying both
and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution
(Ex1)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution
(Ex1)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution
(Ex2)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution
(Ex2)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the Isopreference curves (in the NM plane)

Electromagnetic
Spectrum
Each point: image having values of N and k equal to the
2.3- Image Sensing coordinates of this point
and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Points lying on an isopreference curve correspond to

and Quantization images of equal subjective quality.
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Conclusions:
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

Quality of images increases as N & k increase
and Acquisition Sometimes, for fixed N, the quality improved by
decreasing k (increased contrast)
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization For images with large amounts of detail, few gray levels
are needed
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Detail Level

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Image Sampling and Quantization

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Basic Concepts in Sampling and Quantization
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Representing Digital Images

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Spatial and Intensity Resolution

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships Image Interpolation
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 ‫)‪Image Interpolation(1‬‬

‫‪2.1- Elements of‬‬

‫‪Visual Perception‬‬

‫‪2.2- Light and the‬‬ ‫درونی‪£‬ابی‪ ،‬فراین‪£‬د اس‪£‬تفاده از داده‌ه‪£‬ای ش‪£‬ناخته ب‪£‬رای ب‪£‬رآورد مق‪£‬ادیر در مکانه‪£‬ای‬
‫‪Electromagnetic‬‬ ‫ناشناخته است‪.‬‬
‫‪Spectrum‬‬

‫‪2.3- Image Sensing‬‬ ‫درونی‪£‬ابی نزدیک‪£‬ترین همس‪£‬ایه ‪ :‬روش‪£‬ی اس‪£‬ت ک‪£‬ه ب‪£‬ه ه‪£‬ر مک‪£‬ان جدی‪£‬د‪ ،‬ش‪£‬دت‬
‫‪and Acquisition‬‬ ‫نزدیک‪£‬ترین همس‪£‬ایه‌اش در تص‪£‬ویر اص‪£‬لی را نس‪£‬بت میده‪£‬د‪ .‬در این روش‬
‫احتمال نتیجه نامطلوب در خمیدگی شدید لبه ها مستقیم وجود دارد‪.‬‬
‫‪2.4- Image Sampling‬‬
‫‪and Quantization‬‬
‫درونی‪£‬ابی دوخطی ‪ :‬از چه‪£‬ار نزدیک‪£‬ترین همس‪£‬ایه ب‪£‬رای ب‪£‬رآورد ش‪£‬دت در‬
‫‪2.5- Some Basic‬‬ ‫مکان مورد نظر استفاده میشود‪.‬‬
‫‪Relationships‬‬
‫‪Between Pixels‬‬
‫درونی‪£‬ابی دو مکع‪£‬بی ‪ :‬ش‪£‬امل ش‪£‬انزده نزدیک‪£‬ترین همس‪£‬ایه ی‪£‬ک نقط‪£‬ه ب‪£‬رای‬
‫‪2.6- An Introduction‬‬ ‫برآورد است‪.‬‬
‫‪to the Mathematical‬‬
‫‪Tools Used in Digital‬‬
‫‪Image Processing‬‬
Suppose that we want to find the value of the unknown function fat the
point P = (x, y). It is assumed that we know the value of fat the four points Q11 =
(x1, y1), Q12 = (x1, y2), Q21 = (x2, y1), and Q22 = (x2, y2).
We first do linear interpolation in the x-direction. This yields
.We proceed by interpolating in the y-direction

We proceed by interpolating in the y-direction.

 Unit Square

If we choose a coordinate system in which the four

points where f is known are (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), and (1, 1),
then the interpolation formula simplifies to

Or equivalently, in matrix operations:

Bicubic interpolation
 Image Interpolation(2)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the (a) Image reduced to 72 dpi

Electromagnetic and zoomed back to its
Spectrum original size ( pixels)
using nearest neighbor
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition interpolation. (b) Image
shrunk and zoomed
2.4- Image Sampling using bilinear
and Quantization interpolation. (c) Same
as (b) but using bicubic
2.5- Some Basic interpolation. (d)–(f)
Relationships
Between Pixels Same sequence, but
shrinking down to 150
2.6- An Introduction dpi instead of 72 dpi
to the Mathematical [Fig. 2.24(d) is the
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing same as Fig. 2.20(c)].
 Nonuniform Sampling &
Quantization

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

An adaptive sampling scheme can improve the appearance of an
Electromagnetic image, where the sampling would consider the characteristics of
Spectrum the image.
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition i.e. fine sampling in the neighborhood of sharp gray-level
transitions (e.g. boundaries)
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization
Coarse sampling in relatively smooth regions

2.5- Some Basic Considerations: boundary detection, detail content

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
2.5 Some Basic Relationships
Between Pixels
 Some Basic Relationships Between
Pixels

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Neighborhood of a Pixel
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions, and Boundaries

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Distance Measures

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Some Basic Relationships Between
Pixels

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum Definitions:
2.3- Image Sensing f(x,y): digital image
and Acquisition
Pixels: q, p
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization
Subset of pixels of f(x,y): S
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Some Basic Relationships Between
Pixels

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Neighborhood of a Pixel
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions, and Boundaries

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Distance Measures

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Neighborhood of a Pixel

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the A pixel p at (x,y) has 2 horizontal and 2 vertical neighbors:
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
(x+1,y), (x-1,y), (x,y+1), (x,y-1)
2.3- Image Sensing This set of pixels is called the 4-neighbors of p: N 4(p)
and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling The 4 diagonal neighbors of p are: (ND(p))

and Quantization
(x+1,y+1), (x+1,y-1), (x-1,y+1), (x-1,y-1)
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships
Between Pixels N4(p) + ND(p)  N8(p): The 8-neighbors of p

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Some Basic Relationships Between
Pixels

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Neighborhood of a Pixel
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions, and Boundaries

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Distance Measures

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions, and
Boundaries

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the A pixel p at (x,y) has 2 horizontal and 2 vertical neighbors:
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
(x+1,y), (x-1,y), (x,y+1), (x,y-1)
2.3- Image Sensing This set of pixels is called the 4-neighbors of p: N 4(p)
and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling The 4 diagonal neighbors of p are: (ND(p))

and Quantization
(x+1,y+1), (x+1,y-1), (x-1,y+1), (x-1,y-1)
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships
Between Pixels N4(p) + ND(p)  N8(p): The 8-neighbors of p

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions, and
Boundaries

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum Two image subsets S1 and S2 are adjacent if some pixel in S1 is
adjacent to some pixel in S2.
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions, and
Boundaries

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions, and
Boundaries

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Connectivity between pixels is important:
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic Because it is used in establishing boundaries of objects and
Spectrum components of regions in an image
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition Two pixels are connected if:
They are neighbors (i.e. adjacent in some sense -- e.g.
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization
N4(p), N8(p))
Their gray levels satisfy a specified criterion of similarity
2.5- Some Basic (e.g. equality)
Relationships
Between Pixels
V is the set of gray-level values used to define adjacency (e.g.
2.6- An Introduction V={1} for adjacency of pixels of value 1)
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions, and
Boundaries

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum For any pixel p in S, the set of pixels in S that are connected to
p is a connected component of S.
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition
If S has only one connected component then S is called a
2.4- Image Sampling connected set.
and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions, and
Boundaries

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Region: R a subset of pixels is a region if R is a connected set.
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Its boundary (border, contour) is the set of pixels in R that have
and Acquisition at least one neighbor not in R
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization Edge can be the region boundary (in binary images)

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Path

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
A path (curve) from pixel p with coordinates (x,y) to pixel q with
2.2- Light and the coordinates (s,t) is a sequence of distinct pixels:
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
(x0,y0), (x1,y1), …, (xn,yn)
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition
where (x0,y0)=(x,y), (xn,yn)=(s,t), and (xi,yi) is adjacent to
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization (xi-1,yi-1), for 1≤i ≤n ; n is the length of the path.

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships If (x0, y0) = (xn, yn): A closed path.
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Path

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum 4-, 8-, m-paths can be defined depending on the type of
adjacency specified.
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition
If p,q  S, then q is connected to p in S if there is a path from
2.4- Image Sampling p to q consisting entirely of pixels in S.
and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Some Basic Relationships Between
Pixels

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic Neighborhood of a Pixel
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions, and Boundaries

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Distance Measures

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Distance Measures (1)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
For pixels p,q,z with coordinates (x,y), (s,t), (u,v), D is a
2.2- Light and the distance function or metric if:
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
D(p,q) ≥ 0 (D(p,q)=0 if p=q)
2.3- Image Sensing
and Acquisition D(p,q) = D(q,p)
D(p,z) ≤ D(p,q) + D(q,z)
2.4- Image Sampling
and Quantization
Euclidean distance:
2.5- Some Basic De(p,q) = [(x-s)2 + (y-t)2]1/2
Relationships
Between Pixels Points (pixels) having a distance less than or equal to r
from (x,y) are contained in a disk of radius r centered at
2.6- An Introduction (x,y).
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Distance Measures (2)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
D4 distance (City-Block Distance):
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic D4(p,q) = |x-s| + |y-t|
Spectrum
forms a diamond centered at (x,y)
2.3- Image Sensing e.g. pixels with D4≤2 from p
and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization
D8 distance (Chessboard Distance):
2.5- Some Basic D8(p,q) = max(|x-s|,|y-t|)
Relationships
Between Pixels
forms a square centered at p
e.g. pixels with D8≤2 from p
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Distance Measures (3)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
‫ یا فاصله بلوک شهری‬D4 ‫فاصله‬
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling ‫ یا فاصله شطرنجی‬D8 ‫فاصله‬

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical ‫ گانه بین نقاط‬m ‫ یا کوتاهترین مسیر‬Dm ‫فاصله‬
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Distance Measures (4)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
D4 and D8 distances between p and q are independent of any
Spectrum paths that exist between the points because these distances
involve only the coordinates of the points (regardless of
2.3- Image Sensing whether a connected path exists between them).
and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling However, for m-connectivity the value of the distance (length
and Quantization of path) between two pixels depends on the values of the pixels
along the path and those of their neighbors.
2.5- Some Basic
Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Distance Measures (5)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
However, for m-connectivity the value of the distance (length
2.2- Light and the of path) between two pixels depends on the values of the
Electromagnetic pixels along the path and those of their neighbors.
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition
e.g. assume p2, p 4 = 1 p1, p3 = can have either 0
2.4- Image Sampling or 1
and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic If only connectivity of pixels valued 1 is allowed, and p 1 and p3 are
Relationships
Between Pixels 0, the m-distance between p and p 4 is 2.

2.6- An Introduction If either p1 or p3 is 1, the distance is 3.

to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
If both p1 and p3 are 1, the distance is 4 (pp1p2p3p4)
Labeling Connected component in
binary Image

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception (We consider 4-connectivity)
2.2- Light and the
Scan the image from left to right and top to bottom
Electromagnetic for every pixel (x,y) in the image consider p=f(x,y) r=f(x-1,y)
Spectrum q=f(x,y-1)
if p==0 , go to next pixel
2.3- Image Sensing else if p==1,
and Acquisition
if both neighbors are zero, assign new label to p and go to next
2.4- Image Sampling pixel
and Quantization if one of neighbors is 1 assign its label to p and go to next
pixel
2.5- Some Basic if they both are 1 and have the same label assign their label to
Relationships p and go to next pixel
Between Pixels
if they both are 1 and have different labels assign one of the
2.6- An Introduction
label to p and make a note that the labels are the same then go
to the Mathematical to next pixel
Tools Used in Digital End
Image Processing Scan the labels and re-label the connected components considering
equivalent labels.
2.6 An Introduction to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital Image Processing
An Introduction to the Mathematical Tools
Used in Digital Image Processing

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Array Versus Matrix Operations
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic Linear versus Nonlinear Operations
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Arithmetic Operations

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Set and Logical Operations

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Spatial Operations
Relationships
Between Pixels
Vector and Matrix Operations
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical Image Transforms
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Probabilistic Methods
An Introduction to the Mathematical Tools
Used in Digital Image Processing

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Array
Array Versus
Versus Matrix
Matrix Operations
Operations
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic Linear versus Nonlinear Operations
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Arithmetic Operations

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Set and Logical Operations

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Spatial Operations
Relationships
Between Pixels
Vector and Matrix Operations
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical Image Transforms
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Probabilistic Methods
 Array Versus Matrix Operations

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling ‫ضرب آرایه ای‬

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels
‫ضرب ماتریسی‬
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
An Introduction to the Mathematical Tools
Used in Digital Image Processing

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Array Versus Matrix Operations
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic Linear versus
Linear versus Nonlinear
Nonlinear Operations
Operations
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Arithmetic Operations

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Set and Logical Operations

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Spatial Operations
Relationships
Between Pixels
Vector and Matrix Operations
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical Image Transforms
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Probabilistic Methods
Linear versus Nonlinear Operations

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Linear versus Nonlinear Operations

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
An Introduction to the Mathematical Tools
Used in Digital Image Processing

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Array Versus Matrix Operations
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic Linear versus Nonlinear Operations
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Arithmetic Operations

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Set and Logical Operations

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Spatial Operations
Relationships
Between Pixels
Vector and Matrix Operations
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical Image Transforms
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Probabilistic Methods
 Arithmetic Operations

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Image Addition
(Averaging)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Image Subtraction

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Image Subtraction

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Image Multiplication
(Division)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Image Multiplication
(Division)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
An Introduction to the Mathematical Tools
Used in Digital Image Processing

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Array Versus Matrix Operations
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic Linear versus Nonlinear Operations
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Arithmetic Operations

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Set and Logical Operations

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Spatial Operations
Relationships
Between Pixels
Vector and Matrix Operations
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical Image Transforms
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Probabilistic Methods
 Set and Logical Operations

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
An Introduction to the Mathematical Tools
Used in Digital Image Processing

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Array Versus Matrix Operations
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic Linear versus Nonlinear Operations
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Arithmetic Operations

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Set and Logical Operations

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Spatial Operations
Relationships
Between Pixels
Vector and Matrix Operations
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical Image Transforms
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Probabilistic Methods
 Set and Logical Operations

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Spatial Operations (1)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Spatial Operations (2)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Spatial Operations (3)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Spatial Operations (4)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
An Introduction to the Mathematical Tools
Used in Digital Image Processing

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Array Versus Matrix Operations
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic Linear versus Nonlinear Operations
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Arithmetic Operations

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Set and Logical Operations

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Spatial Operations
Relationships
Between Pixels
Vector and Matrix Operations
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical Image Transforms
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Probabilistic Methods
 Vector and Matrix Operations

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
An Introduction to the Mathematical Tools
Used in Digital Image Processing

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Array Versus Matrix Operations
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic Linear versus Nonlinear Operations
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Arithmetic Operations

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Set and Logical Operations

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Spatial Operations
Relationships
Between Pixels
Vector and Matrix Operations
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical Image Transforms
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Probabilistic Methods
 Image Transforms (1)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
 Image Transforms (2)

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
An Introduction to the Mathematical Tools
Used in Digital Image Processing

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception
Array Versus Matrix Operations
2.2- Light and the
Electromagnetic Linear versus Nonlinear Operations
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing Arithmetic Operations

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling Set and Logical Operations

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Spatial Operations
Relationships
Between Pixels
Vector and Matrix Operations
2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical Image Transforms
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Probabilistic Methods
 Probabilistic Methods

2.1- Elements of
Visual Perception

2.2- Light and the

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

2.3- Image Sensing

and Acquisition

2.4- Image Sampling

and Quantization

2.5- Some Basic

Relationships
Between Pixels

2.6- An Introduction
to the Mathematical
Tools Used in Digital
Image Processing
Chapter 2 - The end