An Introduction to Structural Health

Monitoring

Dr. Muhammad Yousuf, UET, LHR

Structural health monitoring…...

•Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) or Structural Health

Assessment (SHA) system is a method of evaluating and
monitoring the structural health. It has been widely applied
in various engineering sectors due to its ability;
•To respond to adverse structural changes,
•Improving structural reliability and life cycle management.
Structural health monitoring…...
•In SHM, damage detection and characterization strategy for
engineering structures is carried out.

•The damage is defined as changes to the material and/or

geometric properties of the system which adversely affect the
system’s performance.

•SHM results lead to suggest some optimal remedial measures; if

possible.

•Two approaches are there in SHM namely non-continuous or

short-term and continuous or long term SHM.
Structural health monitoring…...

•Infrastructure inspection, such as road network and

bridges, plays a key role in public safety in regards to both
long-term damage accumulation and post extreme event
scenarios.
•As part of the rapid developments in data-driven
technologies, that are transforming many fields in
engineering and science, machine learning and computer
vision techniques are increasingly capable of reliably
diagnosing and classifying patterns in image data, which
has clear applications in inspection contexts.
Structural health monitoring…...

•From long term SHM, periodically updated information

regarding the ability of the structure to perform its
intended function in light of the inevitable aging and
degradation resulting from operational environments is
the final outcome.
•After extreme events, such as earthquakes or blast
loading, SHM is used for rapid condition screening and
aims to provide, in near real time, reliable information
regarding the integrity of the structure.
Structural health monitoring…...

There are stages of increasing difficulty that require the

knowledge of previous stages, namely:

•Detecting the existence of the damage on the structure

•Locating the damage
•Identifying the types of damage
•Quantifying the severity of the damage
Intro to

SHM Objectives
• Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) aims to improve
knowledge of the safety and maintainability of
civil structures / infrastructures.

• To provide a general awareness of the Structural

Health Monitoring (SHM) and its potential applications

• To introduce the general apparatus used and tests

performed for monitoring the typical engineering
structures
Intro to

SHM Outcomes of effective SHM

• In addition to improving safety and ensuring longer

life spans for structures, SHM can also greatly
reduce long- and short-term costs related
to structural maintenance.
• Of course, reduced costs are inherent in improved
safety measures that reduce the risk of
catastrophes as well as structural and
environmental damage.
Intro to

SHM Intro and Overview

• The world’s population depends on an extensive

infrastructure system
− Buildings, bridges, roads, sewers, highways etc.
• The infrastructure system usually suffers from
− Carelessness, deterioration, lack of funding in
past years

Global Infrastructure Crisis

Intro to

SHM Introduction and Overview

• Factors leading to the different extensive degradation…

Neglect, Unsatisfactory inspection and

Factor #1
monitoring of existing infrastructure

Problems become apparent only when

Consequences
structures are in dire need of repair

Result Repair costs become comparable to

replacement costs
 Intro to

SHM Introduction and Overview

Factors Leading to Degradation

Corrosion of conventional
Factor #2 steel reinforcement within
concrete
Expansion of steel leads to
Consequences cracking, spalling, and further
deterioration in the structure

Reductions in strength and

Result serviceability resulting in
need for repair and/or
replacement
Intro to

SHM Introduction and Overview

Factors Leading to Degradation

Increased loads or design requirements

Factor #3
over time (e.g. heavier trucks)

Increased deterioration due to overloads or

Consequences to structural inadequacies resulting from
design

Structures is deemed to be unsafe or unserviceable

Result
and strengthening or replacement is required
Intro to

SHM Introduction and Overview

Factors Leading to Degradation

Factor #4 Overall deterioration and/or aging

Various detrimental effects on

Consequences structural performance, both safety
and serviceability

Need for repair, rehabilitation,

Result
strengthening, or replacement
Intro to

SHM SHM Definition

What is SHM?
Structural Health Monitoring
(Non- continuous) (Continuous)
Destructive / Non- Uses several types of
destructive in-situ sensors, embedded in or
structural evaluation attached to a structure
(Before and after concrete
method (after the maturity for smart analysis;
structure has matured)
experimental or study level)

Structural safety, strength, integrity & performance

anticipation
Testing / In-situ structural evaluation methods

Non-destructive Destructive
Concrete
Testing

Does not destroy the test  Carried out until specimen’s

specimen failure
After testing, allows the  will render the part unusable for
part to be used for its its intended purpose.
intended purpose  The affected part will have to
be repaired or removed
 Cost Effectiveness
 Destructive testing

 Huge Cost initially has to be put

in for taking sample and then to
test it.
 NDT

 It is an easy and simple process

and a lot many tests can be
performed on concrete, less
amount and material is required
for sampling.
Partial destructive /
Destructive Testing

Core sample test

&
Load bearing test
• A direct assessment on strength can be made by core
sampling and testing. Cores are usually cut by means of a
rotary cutting tool with diamond bits.

• A cylindrical specimen is obtained usually with its ends

being uneven, parallel and sometimes with embedded
pieces of reinforcement.

• The cores are visually inspected , analyzed, described and

photographed, giving specific attention to compaction,
distribution of aggregates, presence of steel etc.
• Core sample is used for testing the physical properties of
the concrete like compressive strength, density, tensile
strength, water absorption, crack depth and chemical test
like depth of carbonation and chloride content etc.

• It can also be used to inspect the interior region of the

structural members.

• The max. depth of the core that can be cut is 430mm

with generally varying diameters of 25mm to 150mm

• Generally the L / D ratio should be nearly be 2.

• Take core sample after concrete is strong enough to permit sample
removal without disturbing the bond between the mortar and coarse
aggregate.
• Cut surfaces should not display erosion of the mortar and the
exposed coarse aggregate particles should be firmly embedded in
the mortar. Don’t use samples that have been damaged during
removal.
• Locate the reinforcement and drill cores so they don’t contain any
embedded reinforcement.
• Drill cores perpendicular to surface and not near formed joints or
obvious edges of a concrete placement (unit of deposit).
• Take cores near the middle of a concrete placement (unit of
deposit) when possible. In columns or walls, for instance, samples
should be taken near mid-height—not at the top or bottom.
Factors affecting the compressive strength of extracted concrete
cores
• Size of stone aggregate:
If the ratio of diameter of core to maximum size of stone aggregate is
less than 3, a reduction in strength is reported. For concrete with
20mm size aggregate, 50mm dia core has been tested to give 10%
lower results than with 10mm dia cores.

• Presence of transverse reinforcement steel:

Compressive strength of core with cut rebar is always less than
corresponding strength of core without rebar. Generally the presence
of transverse steel causes 5 to 15% reduction in compressive
strength of core. However presence of steel parallel to the axis of the
core is not desirable.
 Factors; contd..….
• It appears that strength reduction due to existence of rebar in cores as
compared to that of cast cylindrical samples is about 16 to 24 percent. It
seems that rebar cutting leads to weakness in cores compressive
strength due to crack formation between concrete and rebars.
• There is not reliable relationship for correcting compressive strength
results of cores with rebar
• In some European countries there is no correction, but BS 1881:1983
and Concrete Society presented corrections for rebar existing in
concrete cores. Equation (1) generally works for samples that rebar are
parallel to ends of sample.
 Factors; contd..….

• In codes and standards like ACI, ASTM, EN, there is no

consideration for rebar effect on core, therefore there is not any
correction for core test result.

• Age of concrete:
No age allowance is recommended by the Concrete Society as some
evidence is reported to suggest that in-situ concrete gains little
strength after 28 days. Whereas others suggest that under average
conditions, the increase over 28 days’ strength is 10% after 3 months,
15% after 6 months. Hence it is not easy to deal the effect of age on
core strength.
• Strength of concrete:
The effect in reducing the core strength appears to be higher in weak
concretes.
 Factors; contd..
• Drilling operations:
The strength of cores is generally less than that of standard cylinders,
partly as a consequence of disturbance due to vibrations during
drilling operations. Whatever best precautions are taken during
drilling, there is always a risk of slight damage.

• Site conditions vis-a-vis standard specimens:

Because site curing is invariably inferior to curing prescribed for
standard specimens, the in-situ core strength is invariably lower
than the standard specimens taken and tested during concreting
operations.
 Factors; contd..….
H/D ratio:
•This has been already discussed above. However its value should be
minimum 0.95 and maximum 2. Higher ratio would cause a reduction in
strength.
•If the ratio of the length to diameter of the specimen is less than 2 then
correction factors are required to be applied
 Factors; contd..….
• An analysis of strength data from 1080 cores tested by various
investigators indicated that the strength of a 50 mm (2 in.)
diameter core was on average 6% less than the strength of a 100
mm (4 in.) diameter core (Bartlett and MacGregor 1994d).

• ACI 214.4R-03 report Guides for Obtaining Cores and

Interpreting Compressive Strength Results. This guide presents
procedures for obtaining and testing the cores and interpreting
the results in accordance with ACI 318 criteria.

• ASTM C 42/C 42M presents standard methods for conditioning

the specimen, preparing the ends before testing, and correcting
the test result for the core length-to-diameter ratio.
 (ACI 318)
• A load test on concrete structure is required to determine the
serviceability of the structure when the presence / effect of the
strength deficiency and its remedial measures are not fully
known or when the required dimensions and material properties
for analysis are not available.
• Load test has been commonly used in civil engineering industry
to verify the adequacy of structures.
• Generally, water, sand or bricks are used to reproduce the
uniformly distributed loads. However, some researchers have
recommended hydraulic jacks for rapid loading.
• A load test is usually not made until the portion of the structure
to be subjected to load is at least 56 days old. The test can only
be performed at an earlier age if the owner of the structure, the
contractor, and all involved parties agree.
 (ACI 318)
• ACI 318 chapter 20 provides detailed testing procedure
and criteria of acceptance and rejection. Several
researchers have recommended different methods for
applying loads and investigating structural response for the
load tests.
• Sometimes a concrete structure believed to be deficient
passes a load test. This confusion or misunderstanding is
due to the conservative design of concrete structures, extra
reinforcing steel to control shrinkage, cracking and thermal
effects, conservative design theories, overestimation of the
loads, extra concrete strength and multi-directional sharing
of the loads not considered in ordinary designs.
• As per ACI 318 the test load should not be less than 0.85 (1.4DL
+ 1.7LL). As per recommendations of ASCE, live load of 60 psf
for shops and apartments, and 100 psf for assembly areas and
corridors is used to calculate the test load.

• In case a panel is partially used as an assembly area and partly

for the ordinary use, an average live load of 80 psf can be used.

• The test load may be applied in equal increments as

recommended by the ACI.
• Install the dial gauges under the slab structure (preferably for five
points) one is installed at the middle of the slab. The dial gage
installation uses the magnetic base.
• Record all initial deflections and the temperature prior to the
testing.
• Increase the load step by step from 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and
100% of the maximum test load and each load step is held for 1
hour. Except the maximum test load (100%) that has to maintain
24 hours.
• After 24 hours, the test load is decreased step by step from 0%,
50%, 75% and 100% of the maximum test and each released load
step is held for 1 hour. After releasing all test loads, it is maintained
for 24 hours
 Non Destructive Testing

NDT is a non-continuous SHM method of testing existing concrete

structures to assess the strength and durability. In the non
destructive method of testing, without loading the specimen to
failure (i.e. without destructing the concrete), we can measure
strength of concrete
 Typical situations where NDT may be useful are;

• Quality control of pre-cast units or construction in situ

• Removing uncertainties about the acceptability of the material
supplied owing to apparent non-compliance with specification
• Confirming or negating doubts concerning the workmanship
involved in batching, mixing, placing, compacting or curing of
concrete.
• Monitoring of strength development in relation to formwork
removal, cessation of curing, prestressing, load application or
similar purpose.
 Typical situations where NDT may be useful are;
• Location and determination of the extent of cracks, voids,
honeycombing and similar defects within a concrete structure.
• Determining the concrete uniformity, possibly preliminary to core
cutting, load testing or other more expensive or disruptive tests

• Determining the position, quantity or condition of reinforcement

• Increasing the confidence level of a smaller number of

destructive tests.

• Determining the extent of concrete variability in order to help in

the selection of sample locations representative of the quality to
be assessed.
 Typical situations where NDT may be useful are;
• Confirming or locating suspected deterioration of concrete
resulting from such factors as overloading, fatigue, external or
internal chemical attack or change, fire, explosion,
environmental effects.

• Assessing the potential durability of the concrete.

• Monitoring long term changes in concrete properties

• Providing information for any proposed change of use of a

structure for insurance or for change of ownership.
 Why NDT?

• Gives result without damaging structure

• Quick quality assessment of the structure

• Determining position of reinforcement

• Location of Cracks/Joints/Honeycombing

• In some cases, it is required to assess concrete damaged

due to fire or any other natural disaster
Deliverables of NDT
 Scope
• To suggest the methodology to be followed &
applicability of any specific non destructive testing
suitable for the structure.

• Automatic interpretation of data from NDT, with the

goal of detecting flaws accurately and efficiently.

• To propose retrofitting techniques for structures failing

in this kind of testing.
►This technique is not a replacement of core sample
testing
►More than one test method may be required

►Environmental conditions may affect or distort the results

►Design or Construction details may cause confusion on

results
►Some conditions cannot be determined with a reasonable
degree of accuracy without destructive testing
 BRIEF OF NDT TEST
1) Strength evaluation of Concrete
Measurement Application Equipment
No.

Surface strength Surface Zone Strength

Rebound Hammer
1 (rebound number) Assessment

Homogeneity of
Quality of Concrete Ultrasonic pulse
2 Concrete
velocity meter

Combined ultrasonic
Uniformity/homogeneity,
and rebound number Ultrasonic Pulse
3 Location of internal defects
determination velocity tester

Pull-off strength Surface Zone Strength

Pull off Tester
4 (bond strength Assessment
1) Strength evaluation of Concrete

No. Measurement Application Equipment

5 Pull out force Surface zone strength Pull out “Lock” Test
assessment (Construction Stage)
Pull Out “Capo” Test (after
construction

6 Break off test The break off test at failure Break off tester
can be related to
compressive or flexural
strength

7 Penetration Surface Zone Strength Windsor Probe

resistance Assessment
2)Corrosion assessment, location, dia. of rebar and
cover
No Measurement Application Equipment
1 Corrosion potential Status of Corrosion Half Cell Potential
(half-cell) activity Meter

2 Resistivity Rate of probable Resistivity Meter

corrosion

3 Carbonation depth Corrosion risk and Carbonation Test

cause Kit

4 Chloride content Corrosion risk and Chloride Field Test

cause System
No. Measurement Application Equipment
5 Voids and Corrosion Viewing interior of Endoscopy
concrete

6 Scanning Of dia. of It is used for locating Profometer

rebar and cover rebars , diameter of
rebars and concrete
cover
7 Cover and re-bar Corrosion risk and cause Micro Cover
measurement Meter
3) Crack measurement in buildings and structures

No. Measurement Application Equipment

1 Length changes Strain measurement digital strain gauges

2 Radiographic Cracks, location of Radiographic source and

Images rebars detector

3 Acoustic Emission To measure the location SPARTAN &

technique and activity of cracks MISTRAS System

4 Infra Red Images Cracks, delamination Infra Red Thermal

Imaging Systems
Some of the NDT Methods

Experience and well trained

observer
 Visual inspection

• An inspection is performed of existing structures in

order to gather data needed to evaluate the various
performance values of the structure
• Inspections shall consist of two types: document
checks and site inspections.
• When inspecting structures, the study shall be
conducted in accordance with the retrofitting method
whose employment is to be considered.
Methodology
 Visual observations
• Surface Staining
• Cracks
• Color change and Weathering
• Surface pitting and Spalling
• Differential movements and Displacements
• Presence of algal and vegetable growth
• Surface voids
• Honeycombing
• Bleed Marks
• Constructional and Lift Joints
• Lack of Uniformity
 Visual inspection of fire damage concrete

Changes in fire-damaged concrete:

<3000C Boundary cracking alone
250-3000C Aggregate colour changes to pink to red
3000C Paste develops a brown or pinkish colour
300-5000C Serious cracking in paste
400-4500C Portlandite converts to lime
5000C Change to anisotropic paste
500-6000C Paste changes from red or purple to grey
5730C Quartz gives a rapid expansion resulting from a phase change
from alpha to beta quartz
600-7500C Limestone particles become chalky white
9000C Carbonates start to shrink
950-10000C Paste changes from grey to buff
 Visual inspection of fire damage concrete

Change in aggregate
250-3000C Aggregate colour changes to pink to red
5730C Quartz gives a rapid expansion resulting from a phase change
from alpha to beta quartz
600-7500C Limestone particles become chalky white
9000C Carbonates start to shrink
Changes in the paste
3000C Paste develops a brown or pinkish colour
400-4500C Portlandite converts to lime
500-6000C Paste changes from red or purple to grey
950-10000C Paste changes from grey to buff
 Visual inspection, conclusions
• Visual inspection is a very powerful NDT method. Its efficiency,
however, is to a large extent governed by the experience and
knowledge of the investigator. A broad knowledge of structural
behaviour, materials, and construction methods is desirable. Visual
inspection is typically one aspect of the total evaluation plan,
which will often be supplemented by a series of other NDT
methods or invasive procedures.
• Visual features may be related to workmanship, structure
serviceability and material deterioration, and it is particularly
important that the engineer be able to differentiate between the
various types of cracking which may be encountered.
• Visual inspection will also provide the basis of judgment relating
to access and safety requirements. There are already frightening
examples where public safety has been put at risk due to lack of
simple regular visual inspection.
 Testing concrete by tapping method

• As part of visual inspection the strength of concrete may

be roughly obtained by tapping method.
• However, this may not be treated as substitute of cube
testing.
• Tapping an object with a hammer is one of the oldest
form of non-destructive testing based on stress-wave
propagation.
• The method is subjective, as it depends on the experience
of the operator, sounding is a useful method for detecting
near-surface delimitations.
 Strength assessment by tapping method:
Test Results
Strength
Blow of hammer (0.4 kg) Blow of hammer (0.4kg) Scratching by chisel
of
upon concrete surface upon chisel placed at right
concrete
angles to concrete surface
(N/mm2)`

Blow 6.0 Sound-toneless deep dent Chisel is easily driven into Concrete cuts easily
with crumbling edges concrete and crumbles

6-10 Sound-slightly toneless. Dent Chisel can be driven into Visible scratches 1-1.5
has smooth edges, concrete concrete deeper than 5 mm mm deep
crumbles

10-20 Sound-clear whitish mark Thin scales split off round Visible scratches no
remains the mark deeper than 1 mm
Over 20 Sound-ringing metallic mark- Mark is not very deep Barely visible
visible scratches
 Rebound Hammer Test (ASTM C 805)
 Object
► To find the compressive strength of
concrete with the help of suitable
correlation between rebound index
and compressive strength
► Many readings are needed
► Assessing the uniformity of
concrete
► Assessing the quality of concrete in
relation to standard requirement
 Working Principle
• It works on the principle that the rebound of an elastic
mass depends on the hardness of the surface against
which the mass impinges.
• When plunger is pressed against concrete, spring
controlled mass rebounds & extent of such rebound
depends upon the surface hardness which is co-related to
compressive strength. Compressive strength can be read
directly from the graph provided on the body of the
hammer
Rebound Hammer
Procedure of application
• Hammers available :

Measuring
Device Applications Weight
Direction

Original Impact direction Used for the non-destructive

Schmidt perpendicular to measurement of the concrete/mortar 900 g
Hammer the surface compressive strength characteristics

Silver Schmidt independent of Suitable for testing a wide variety of

600 g
Hammer impact direction concrete, mortar and rock
Rebound Hammer & strength of Concrete
 Factors affecting Test result
► Type of cement
Concrete made with high
alumina cement can give
strength 100% higher than
that with OPC cement.
Concrete made with super
sulphate cement can give
50% lower strength
• Type of aggregate
Gravels and crushed rock
aggregates give similar
correlation ,but concrete
made with light weight
aggregates require special Comparison of hard and soft gravels
calibration Tcs , John h. Bungey
 Factors affecting Test result

Surface condition and Moisture

content of Concrete
Test is suitable only for close
texture concrete. Open texture or
honeycombed concrete are
unsuitable

A wet surface will give 20%

lower strength in an equivalent
dry concrete Influence of surface moisture condition

Tcs, John h. Bungey

 Factors affecting Test result

►Carbonation of concrete surface

The influence of carbonation of concrete surface
on rebound number is very significant.
Carbonated concrete gives about 50% higher
strength than normal concrete
 Important Points
• For testing, smooth clean and dry surface is to be selected

• Rough surface resulting from incomplete compaction, loss of grout, spalled

surface do not give reliable result and should be avoided
• The point of impact should be at least 20 mm away from any edge or shape
discontinuity
• For taking measurement the rebound hammer should be held at right angle to
the surface of concrete member
• Around each point of observation, six average of these reading of rebound
indices are taken and average of these reading after deleting outliers becomes
the rebound index for the point of observation
Interpretations of Results
 Ultrasonic Pulse velocity Test
OBJECT
►The homogeneity of the concrete

►The presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections

►Changes in the structure of the concrete which may

occur with time
►The quality of the concrete in relation to standard
requirements
 UPV Test

Principle

• The method is based on the principle that the

velocity of an ultrasonic pulse through any material

depends upon the density, modulus of elasticity of

the material
PUNDIT; (Portable Ultrasonic Nondestructive Digital Indicating Tester)

The UPV equipment includes a transducer, a receiver and an indicator for

showing the time of travel from the transducer to the receiver
 How it works?
• Ultrasonic waves are very similar to
light waves in that they can be
reflected, refracted, and focused.

• Reflection and refraction occurs when

sound waves interact with interfaces of
differing acoustic properties.
• Ultrasonic reflections from the presence
of discontinuities or geometric features
enables detection and location of cracks
 Transducer Arrangement

Indirect or surface
Direct Transmission Semi-direct Transmission
Transmission
•A pulse of longitudinal vibration is produced by
an electro-acoustical transducer, which is held in
contact with one surface of the concrete member
under test. After traversing a known path
length(L) in the concrete, the pulse of vibration
where
is converted into an electrical signal by a second
V = pulse velocity
electro-acoustical transducer, and electronic (km/s),
L = path length(cm) ,
timing circuit enable the transit time (T) of the
pulse to be measured. The pulse velocity (V) is T = transit time(µs).
given by
 Interpretations of Results

No Pulse velocity Concrete Quality

(km/s)
1 Above 4.5 Excellent

2 3.5 to 4.5 Good

3 3.0 to 3.5 Medium

4 Below 3.0 Doubtful

 Factors affecting the results
►Smoothness of contact surface under test
The pulse velocity of saturated concrete may be up to 2% higher than

that of similar dry concrete

►Path length, Shape and Size of the Concrete Member
►Temperature of concrete
5º-30º Ideal
30º -60º Reduction in UPV up to 5%
Below 5º increase up to 7.5%

►Moisture condition of concrete

►Presence of reinforcing steel
Pulse velocity in steel 1.2 to 1.9 times the velocity in plain concrete
Electromagnetic cover measurement / Profometer
• The basic principle is that the presence of steel
affects the field of an electromagnet
• It is used to measure the concrete cover and bar
diameter in existing RCC structures. It can also
identify the bar locations and their spacing. The
scanning area permissible by the instrument is
0.5 x 0.5m / 1.0 x 1.0m / 2.0 x 2.0m.
 Applications
 Quality control to ensure correct location and cover to
reinforcing bars after concrete placement

 Investigation of concrete members for which records are

not available or need to be checked

 Location of buried ferromagnetic objects other than

reinforcement, e.g. water pipes, steel joists, lighting
conduits.
 Covermeter image of
The scanning direction should be perpendicular to rebars
reinforcement in a
structure
 HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL Corrosion potentialPOTENTIAL
METHOD, ()

• Corrosion analyzer is based on

electro chemical process to
detect corrosion in the
reinforcement bar of the
structure. The instrument
measures the potential and the
electrical resistance between the
reinforcement and the surface to
evaluate the corrosion activity
Apparatus for Half-Cell Potential Measurement
 How it works?

If there is no corrosion on rebars, If there is corrosion on rebars,

potential difference does not
potential difference occurs.
occurs
Evaluation
Infrared Thermography (ASTM D 4788)
Infrared Thermography (ASTM D 4788)
 Infrared Thermography (ASTM D 4788)
Thermographic cameras can be used to detect subsurface defects in
concrete.
•Delaminations can disturb the thermal transfer properties of the
concrete and result in temperature variations at the surface of the
concrete. Under proper conditions, these temperature variations can
be detected using commonly available infrared cameras. Daily
ambient temperature variations provide a temperature gradient in the
concrete sufficient to provide temperature contrast between the
delaminated area and the intact concrete.
•In practice, the method is complicated by many factors that
contribute to the temperature contrast apparent in images. These
include variations in material properties, variations in moisture
content of the concrete, debris typically found on bridge decks, and
variable environmental conditions.
 Radiography
Principle
►When radiographic rays are directed into an object, some of the
photons interact with the particles of the matter and their energy can be
absorbed or scattered. This absorption and scattering is called
“Attenuation”.
•The relationship between the intensity of photons
incident and transmitted is: where
I is transmitted photon intensity,
I0is incident photon intensity,
µ is attenuation coefficient,
x is thickness of object
RILEM STAR -207
 Effect of attenuation

• As the radiation passes through the member its intensity is

reduced according to the thickness, density and absorption
characteristics of the materials within the member.
• The quantity of radiation passing through the member is
recorded on a film.
 Sources

Source of Iridium192
Source Radioactive life Weight of Maximum thickness of
source(kg) concrete element (cm)

Iridium 192 74 days 25 30

Cobalt 60 5.3 yr 120 40

Cobalt 60 5.3 yr 350 65 RILEM STAR -207

Setup for concrete test
 Detection of Reinforcement

• Reinforcing bars absorb more energy than the surrounding concrete and
show up as light areas on the exposed film.
 Determination of Cracks
• Cracks and voids, on the other hand, absorb less radiation and show
up as dark zones on the film.
• Crack planes parallel to the radiation direction are detected more
readily than cracks perpendicular to the radiation direction.
 Application in Structural Engineering
• Moisture Content
• Detection of reinforcement location
• Detection of Voids and Cracks
• Detection of quality of grouted post-tensioned tendons
• Measurement of bar depth and flaw depth
• The failure of cables
• Discontinuities of the ducts
• Broken wires or cables in some cases
 General cautions in radiography
• Specifically trained and accredited persons for implementing
the technique
• Define a protection area around structure

• Move away all the persons during the entire test

• Specifically trained and accredited persons for implementing

the technique
• Define a protection area around structure

• Move away all the persons during the entire test

 Disadvantages

• For application in Bridges with long span, the power

required will be very high
• Several hundred meters of area will need to be cleared so
that no possibility of accidental exposure.
• Not feasible in densely populated area
 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
GPR is another safe and
effective way to locate buried
obstructions in concrete
structures. The system locates
rebar, post-tension cables,
conduits and voids, inspects
walls, floors, bridge decks,
tunnels, balconies, parking
garages, etc., measures slab
thickness and locates targets
to a depth of 18" and more.
Self navigating Robot for horizontal surfaces
 Radar concrete scanner (3-D imager)
• Automation and Scanning

Small lightweight scanner with vacuum attachment

 Scanning Area Speed:
 Ultrasonic Echo/Impact Echo
1m2/h, 0.02 m point grid
 Radar :
15m2/h, 0.05 m line grid
BAM, Germany
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
 Advantages of radar concrete scanner (3-D imager)
• To locate safe areas to core drill new stacks for electrical and plumbing
• To locate safe areas to anchor HVAC, Mechanical and seismic anchors
• To determining safe areas to cut doorways, stairways and door openings
• To asses slab thickness /survey: Slab on Grade (S.O.G) and elevated
• To locate structural beams: S.O.G. and elevated
• To locate utility pipes under concrete and pavement
• To locate rebar and post tension cable (vertical and horizontal) in concrete
• To determine size and precise location of reinforcement within concrete
• To identify and map reinforcing steel and hydronic lines within concrete
• To map and identify conduits and utility cables within concrete
• To identify air/water filled voids in or behind concrete
Continuous/ Automated / long
term /
Vibration based SHM
Intro to

SHM The SHM / Body Analogy

What is SHM?
Medical Doctor SHM Engineer

• Monitor patient’s health • Monitor condition of structures

• Uses medical equipment • Uses sensors to check overall
to check overall health structural health
• Prescribes corrective • If excessive stress or
medicine if required deformation, corrects situation
Intro to

SHM Classification of SHM Systems

What is SHM?

Consequences
of Damage

Quantify
Damage

Locate
Damage

Detect
Damage

Level I Level II Level III Level IV

Intro to

SHM Classification of SHM Systems

What is SHM?

Level IV
Detect presence, location, severity and consequences of damage

Level III
Detect presence, location and severity of damage
Level II
Detect presence and location of damage
Level I
Detect presence of damage
Intro to

SHM Advantages of SHM

What is SHM?
Advantages of SHM include…
Increased understanding of in-situ structural behaviour
Early damage detection
Assurances of structural strength and serviceability
Decreased down time for inspection and repair (time during which a
machine is out of action or unavailable for use)
Development of rational maintenance / management strategies
Increased effectiveness in allocation of scarce resources
Enables and encourages use of new and innovative materials
Intro to

SHM Ideal SHM System;

• Ideal SHM system:
 Information on demand about a structure’s health
 Warnings regarding any damage detected
• Development of a SHM system involves utilizing information
from many different engineering disciplines including…

Computers Materials Communication

Structures
Intelligent Processing
Data Collection
Damage Detection
Sensors
 Background………….
Structures must withstand ever-changing environmental
loads and varying usages over the span of their useful
lives. However, buildings and bridges have been built as
passive structures that rely on their mass and solidity to
resist outside forces, while incapable of adapting to the
dynamics of an ever-changing environment. Indeed,
"solidity" and "massiveness" have often been equated to
"safety" and "reliability".
In recent years, however, a number of factors have
emerged that signal the need for considering structures
with some degree of adaptability or responsiveness
against different sources of dynamic excitation.
 These factors are:
1. Increased safety levels:
Higher safety levels are demanded as structures
become more complex, more costly, and serve more
critical functions, like tall structures, deep-water
offshore platforms, and nuclear power plants. In these
cases, conventional reliability criteria are no longer
adequate and failure is synonymous with disaster.
 Factors…..
2. Increasingly stringent performance requirements:
Within safety limits, conventional structures are allowed
to deform and even sustain local damage if necessary.
Structures are increasingly required, however, to operate
within strict performance guidelines such as alignment or
shape constraints. Examples in this area are radar
tracking stations, and aerospace structures.
 Factors…..
3. Better utilization of material and lower cost:
Partly due to the considerations just given, and partly
due to economic considerations, it is clear that savings
in materials, weight, and cost are not only desirable but
necessary. This is especially true for structures for
portable structures used in military applications and
space structures
 Structural Adaptability or responsiveness………..

To be sure, some steps have been taken in the direction of

making structures more adaptable to their environment.

Damping systems, e.g., passive viscoelastic dampers (energy

dissipation because of fluid flowing through orifices) and tuned
mass dampers (vibration absorbers or vibration dampers) are
now used in some tall structures to reduce their dynamic
response. In earthquake engineering, progress has been made
in reducing building seismic response by using base isolation
devices. More recent studies also suggest the possibility of using
active control systems.
An active control system relies on the
availability of structural system information
and an external energy supply. It generally
consists of a feedback control system that
is designed to generate corrective forces
Active tuned
whenever they are needed. Several active damper
control systems for civil engineering
applications have been studied analytically
and, in some cases, experimentally in the
laboratory. These include active tuned Active structure
mass dampers as shown in figure.
RichOddballHoki-mobile.mp4
Active Structures. ...
An active structure is one consisting of two types of load
resisting members: the traditional static (or passive) members
that are designed to support basic design loads, and the
dynamic (or active) members whose function is to augment
the structure's capability in resisting extraordinary dynamic
loads. Their integration is done in an optimal fashion and
produces a structure that is adaptive to changing
environmental loads and usages.
The term active structure also refers to structures that, unlike
traditional engineering structures (e.g., bridges, buildings),
require constant motion and hence power input to remain
stable. The advantage of active structures is that they can be
far more massive than a traditional static structure.
Intro to

SHM Long term SHM

• SHM is about assessing the in-service performance

of structures using a variety of measurement
techniques
Leading to “smart” structures
(sometimes using smart material
• A smart structure integrates the properties of embedded
sensors, actuators and control mechanisms in order to
respond to a given stimulus in a functionally useful manner.
Usually it involves implementing hardware and/or software
control mechanisms.
 Intro to

SHM Long term SHM

Actuator: Machine
component for moving
something
Sensor:
A digital device to detect
change
Active structure ;
Mechanical structure with the
ability to alter its
configuration, form or
properties in response to
changes in the environment
Intro to

SHM Long term SHM

• Smart materials:
Smart materials are designed materials that
have one or more properties that can be
significantly changed in a controlled fashion by
external stimuli, such as those from mechanical,
thermal, chemical or other sources (resulting in
change in stress, temperature, moisture, pH,
electric or magnetic fields). It exhibits smart
behavior. sensors or actuators are most often
referred to as "smart" materials.

.
Intro to

SHM Long term SHM

• Smart materials have properties that react to changes
in their environment but these are reversible and can
be repeated many times.

• Smart behaviour occurs when a material can sense

some stimulus from its environment and react to it in a
useful and reliable manner.
An actuator is a component of a machine that is
responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism or
system.
An actuator requires a control signal and a source of
energy.. When it receives a control signal, an actuator
responds by converting the signal's energy into mechanical
motion. An actuator is the mechanism by which a control
system acts upon an environment. The control system can
be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system),
software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control system),
a human, or any other input.
Intro to

SHM Long term SHM

Taylor Bridge, in Manitoba, Canada incorporates numerous sensors

into its design, and is one of the world’s first Smart Structures
Intro to

SHM Long term SHM becoming popular, why?

What is SHM?
Emerging use of SHM is a result of:
1. The increasing need for…
Monitoring of innovative designs and materials
Better management of existing structures
2. The ongoing development of…
New sensors (e.g. FOS; fiber optics sensor, “smart” materials etc.)
Data acquisition systems (DAS)
Wireless and internet technologies
Data transmission, collection, archiving and retrieval systems
Data processing and event identification
Automated SHM System Components
Intro to

SHM Automated SHM System Components

What is SHM?

Acquisition of Data

Communication of Data

Intelligent Processing

Storage of Processed Data Retrieval of Data

Diagnostics
Sub- system Components
Intro to

SHM System Components Schematic

Methodology

DA system
Sensors
Monitored Structure (on-site)
(various
types)
Communication System
(e.g. telephone lines, cables, wireless,
signals etc)
Data Storage
(hard discs or CD archives)

Data processing Data retrieval

(automatically by computer) (and decision making)

Diagnostics
Intro to

SHM 1 – Acquisition of Data

Methodology

The collection of raw data such as strains, deformations,

accelerations, temperatures, moisture levels, acoustic
emissions, and loads
(a) Selection of Sensors
Appropriate and robust (strong) sensors
Long-term versus short-term monitoring
What aspects of the structure will be monitored?
Sensors must serve intended function for required duration
Intro to

SHM 1 – Acquisition of Data

Methodology

(b) Sensor Installation and Placement

Must be able to install sensors without altering the behaviour
of the structure
Features such as sensor wiring, conduit, junction boxes and
other accessories should be well known for proper operation
and function (must be accounted for in the initial structural
design)
Intro to

SHM 1 – Acquisition of Data

Methodology

(c) Transfer to Data Acquisition System (DAS)

Method  - Lead wire
• Direct physical link between sensor and DAS
• least expensive and most common
• Not practical for some large structures
• Long lead wires increase signal “noise”

Method  - Wireless transmission

• More expensive
• Signals are transferred more slowly and are less secure
• Use is increasing day by day
Intro to

SHM 1 – Acquisition of Data

Methodology
(d) Data Sampling and Collection
General Rule: The amount of data should not be so scanty (short)
as to jeopardize (endanger) its usefulness, nor should it be so
voluminous as to overwhelm interpretation
Issues:
• Number of sensors and data sampling rates
• Data sorting for onsite storage
• In some cases, large volumes of data
Result:
• Efficient strategies needed for data sampling and storing
 Intro to

SHM 1 – Acquisition of Data

Methodology

Example Data Acquisition Algorithms (Generally any of two approaches)

Record only values greater Record only significant

than a threshold value changes in readings
(and times that readings occur) (and times that changes occur)
Intro to

SHM 1 – Acquisition of Data

Methodology
What is monitored, how and why?
Load Magnitude and configuration of forces
applied to a structure
• Are they as expected?
• How are they distributed?
Measured using load cells or inferred using
strain data
Deformation Excessive or unexpected deformation, may
result in a need for rehabilitation or upgrade
• Are they as expected?
Measured using various transducers (LVDTs
etc.)
 Different Sensors

Load Cell,
Beam type

LVDTs
Load Cell,
Round

Thermister
For
Temperature
Measurement Concrete Embedment Strain Gauges
Surface mountable Concrete Strain Gauges
Intro to

SHM 1 – Acquisition of Data

What is monitored, how, and why?
Strain Strain: Intensity of deformation
Magnitude and variation of strains can be
examined to evaluate safety and integrity
Measured using strain gauges
• FOS, electrical, vibrating wire, etc.
Temperature Changes in temp. cause deformation
• Thermal Expansion
• Repeated cycles can cause damage
Temperature affects strain readings
• Temp must be “removed” from strain data
Measured using thermistors
* TCs: thermocouples, ITCs: integrated temperature circuits
Intro to

SHM 1 – Acquisition of Data

What is monitored, how, and why?
Acceleration Loads cause accelerations of structural
components and vice versa
• How is the structure resisting accelerations
and the resulting loads?
Widespread use in highly seismic regions
Accelerometers Measured using accelerometers
Wind Speed Wind loads can govern the design of long-
and Pressure span bridges and tall buildings
•Record speed and pressure at various
locations
Measured using anemometers
Accelerometer: An instrument for measuring the acceleration of a moving or vibrating body
Anemometers: A device used for measuring wind speed
Intro to

SHM 1 – Acquisition of Data

What is monitored, how, and why?

Acoustic When certain structural elements break, they

Emissions emit noise
• AE listens for the noises, and pinpoints locations
• Used in post-tensioned concrete and cable-
stayed structures
•Measured using microphones

Video Time-stamped videos and pictures can be

Monitoring used to witness extreme loads or events
• Data can be correlated with images
• Permits finding of overloaded trucks
Emerging internet camera technology is used
Intro to

SHM 2 – Communication of Data

Methodology

• Refers to data transfer from the DAS to an offsite location

• Allows for remote monitoring, elimination of site visits

Telephone
lines
Offsite
DAS Internet
Location
Wireless
technologies
 Intro to

SHM 3 – Intelligent Processing of Data

Methodology
• Required before data can be stored for later
interpretation and analysis
• The goal is to remove mundane (un-useful) data, noise,
thermal, or other unwanted affects and to make data
interpretation:

Easier
Faster
More accurate
Intro to

SHM 4 – Storage of Processed Data

Methodology
• Data may be stored for very long periods of time
– Retrieved data must be understandable
– Data must not be corrupted
– Sufficient memory must be available

• Data files must be well documented for future

interpretation

• It is common to disregard raw data and store

only processed or analyzed data
– This does not allow for re-interpretation
Intro to

SHM 5 – Diagnostics
Methodology
• Extremely important component
– Converts abstract data signals into useful information about
structural response and condition

• No “standard” rules exist for diagnostics

• Methodology used depends on…
Type of structure
Type and location of sensors used
Motivation for monitoring
Structural responses under consideration
Intro to

SHM 6 – Data Retrieval

Methodology

When storing data for retrieval, consider…

 Significance of data
 Confidence in analysis

Remember:
The goal of SHM is to provide detailed physical data
which can be used to enable rational, knowledge-
based engineering decisions.
Intro to

SHM Sensor Technology

• Many sensor types are currently available

– Choice for SHM depends on various factors

• Fibre optic sensors (FOSs)

– Newer class of sensors
– Emerging for infrastructure applications
– Recent and ongoing developments
Intro to

SHM Sensor Technology

Fibre Optic Sensors
Typical Optical Fibre

Outer jacket Aramid reinforcing fibres Inner jacket Fibre buffer Fibre Sensor

Assorted fibre coatings are required to protect the fibre from…

Abrasion Concrete Moisture
Protection during Alkaline environment is Weakens the fibres and
handling and installation harmful to glass fibres controls growth of microcracks
Intro to

SHM Fibre Optic Sensors

Sensor Technology
Sensor development is driving advances in SHM

Beddington Trail Bridge, Calgary, Alberta

- FOS sensors installed during construction in 1993
- Sensors were still performing well in 1999
 Intro to

SHM FOS Advantages

Sensor Technology
Stability Non-conductive
Increased long-term stability Immune to electromagnetic and
and decreased noise radio frequency interference

Innovative Sensing
Capabilities
Flexibility Convenience
Multiplexing (more than one info. Light, small diameters, non-
combined) and Distributed corrosive, embeddable, easily
sensing bondable
Intro to

SHM Types of FOS

Fibre Optic Sensors

Bondable Weldable Embeddable

Hand Installation Premanufactured, easy to install

Care required during Sensor encapsulated in stainless steel
installation container
Protection against Do not require protection against humidity or
humidity and the chemical environment of concrete
environment required (embeddable sensors)
Intro to

SHM Other Types of Sensors

LOAD Load cells
DISPLACEMENT Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Linear Potentiometer

ACCELERATION Accelerometers
TEMPERATURE Thermocouples
Integrated Temperature Circuits

STRAIN Vibrating wire strain gauges

Electrical resistance gauges
Intro to

SHM SHM Testing Categories

Overall SHM categories can be distinguished based on:

1. Timescale of the monitoring

Continuous Periodic

2. Manner in which response is invoked in structure

Static load Dynamic load Ambient vibrations

Intro to

SHM Static Field Testing

Testing Categories

• This is the most common type of Field testing

• Loads are slowly placed and sustained on the structure
→ No dynamic effects (loads move on real structures)

• There are essentially three types of static field tests:

1. Behaviour Tests
2. Diagnostic Tests
3. Proof Tests
Intro to

SHM Static Field Testing

Testing Categories
1. Behaviour Tests

Goal Study mechanics of structure and/or verify

methods of analysis

 Testing loads ≤ Maximum service loads

Results How loads are distributed in structure

No information on ability of structure to
sustain loads
Intro to

SHM Static Field Testing

Testing Categories
2. Diagnostic Tests

Goal Determine interaction between various

components in structure (how they help or
hinder each other)

Essentially same method as Behaviour Tests

Results Beneficial Interaction → Use to advantage

Detrimental Interaction → Repair
Intro to

SHM Static Field Testing

Testing Categories
3. Proof Tests
Goal Induce “proof loads” to test the load
carrying capacity of the structure
Increase load until linear elastic limit reached
Results Proof load is maximum load the structure
has withstood without suffering damage
CAUTION: Extreme care should be taken during proof testing
Monitoring should be continuous during testing
Supporting analysis is required
Intro to

SHM Dynamic Field Testing

Testing Categories
• For testing behaviour of structures subject to moving loads
• In a typical dynamic field test (like for a bridge):
→ A test vehicle travels across a “bump” on the bridge
→ Dynamic response of the bridge is excited, measured and analyzed
• Essentially four types of dynamic test:

1. Stress History Tests

2. Dynamic Amplification Tests
3. Ambient Tests
4. Pull-back Tests
Intro to

SHM Dynamic Field Testing

Testing Categories
1. Stress History Tests

Used for structures bridges that are susceptible to fatigue

loading
Determines the range of stresses that the bridge undergoes
Requires a modern DAS with a rapid sampling rate
Strain profiles are recorded and analyzed to determine the
fatigue life of the structure (the time until failure by fatigue)

NOTE: Fatigue failure is a potentially disastrous type of failure which is

caused by repeated cycles of loading and unloading
Intro to

SHM Dynamic Field Testing

Testing Categories
2. DFA Tests

Structural design generally assumes loads are static – this is

not always the case, particularly for bridges
For dynamic loads, static loads are multiplied by a dynamic
amplification factor (DAF)
Various different dynamic test methods are used to
calculate the DAF for bridges (no standard method exists)
Intro to

SHM Dynamic Field Testing

Testing Categories
3. Ambient Vibration Tests
Vibration characteristics of structure are examined based on vibrations
due to wind, human activity, and traffic
Changes in vibration characteristics of bridge may indicate damage
(vibration based damage identification)
Strategically-placed accelerometers measure vibration response of
bridge, and resulting data is analyzed using complex algorithms
Ambient vibration testing (AVT) involves sensing the structural vibrations caused by ambient forces,
recording the vibration responses and then analyzing the data to arrive at dynamic characteristics of the
structure.

Problems:
Global properties (vibration frequencies) have low sensitivity to local damage
Vibration characteristics are affected by environment, temp. and boundaries
Intro to

SHM Dynamic Field Testing

Testing Categories
4. Pull-back Tests

Usually conducted on bridges to determine response to

lateral dynamic excitation
Use cables to pull structure laterally and suddenly release
Accelerometers used to monitor structure’s response
Data analysis is similar to that required for an ambient
vibration test
Intro to

SHM Periodic Monitoring

Testing Categories

Periodic SHM conducted to investigate detrimental

changes that might occur in a structure
Behaviour of structure is monitored at specified time
intervals (days, weeks, months, years…)
Examples include periodic monitoring:
• through ambient vibration;
• through testing under moving traffic;
• through static field testing;
• of crack growth; and
• of repairs
Intro to

SHM Continuous Monitoring

Testing Categories

Monitoring is “ongoing” for an extended period of time

Only used in field applications because of high costs and
relative complexity
Real-time monitoring and data collection
1. Stored on site for analysis later
2. Communicated to remote location for real-time analysis
Usually only applied to important structures or when
there is doubt about the structural integrity
Intro to

SHM SHM System Design

1. Design Issues… Definition of SHM objectives

Types of monitoring

Sensor placement

Sensors installed on FRP reinforcing

Durability and lifespan of SHM
grid prior to installation in a concrete
bridge deck
Intro to

SHM SHM System Design

2. Installation Issues… Contractor education

Sensor identification

Sensor damage during

construction

Structural changes induced by

presence of SHM system

Contractor education and careful

sensor identification are critical in Protection against deterioration
SHM projects and vandalism / destruction
Intro to

SHM SHM System Design

3. Use Issues… Dissemination of performance

results

Continuity of knowledge

Data collection and

management

Public awareness
 Intro to

SHM SHM System Design: Methodology

1. Identify the damage or deterioration mechanisms
2. Categorize influence of deterioration on the mechanical response
– Theoretical and numerical models of structure
3. Establish characteristic response of key parameters
– Establish sensitivity of each to an appropriate level of deterioration
4. Select the parameters and define performance index
– Relates changes in response to level of deterioration
5. Design system
– Selection of sensors, data acquisition and management
– Data interpretation
6. Install and calibrate SHM system
7. Assess field data and adapt system as necessary
Intro to

SHM Civionics Specifications

What is Civionics?
CIVIL ENGINEERING + ELECTRONICS

= CIVIONICS
Cooperation between engineers from various specific
disciplines to form a new discipline within the field of
civil engineering that refers to the applications of
electronic systems in civil engineering applications
Intro to

SHM The Future of SHM

SHM is increasingly seen as an important tool in

the maintenance of sustainable infrastructure
systems
Ongoing advancements are expected, emerging
technologies include:
→ Smart Composites
→ Live Structures
Intro to

SHM Summary and Conclusion

Structural Health Monitoring

Provides the civil engineering community with a

suite of options for monitoring, analysing, and
understanding the health of our infrastructure
systems

Provide essential tools to engineers who must take

steps to improve the sustainability of infrastructure
systems