Chapter 7

Periodic Properties
of the Elements

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 Development of the Periodic Table
• Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer independently came
to the same conclusion about how elements should be
grouped.

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Figure 7.1 Discovering the elements.
 Mendeleev and the Periodic Table
• Mendeleev is given credit for advancing his ideas more
vigorously and stimulating new work.
• His insistence that elements with similar characteristics
be listed in the same column forced him to leave blank
spaces in his table.
– For example, both gallium (Ga) and germanium (Ge) were
unknown to Mendeleev. He predicted their existence and
properties, referring to them as eka-aluminum (“under”
aluminum) and eka-silicon (“under” silicon).
– When these elements were discovered, their properties closely
matched those predicted by Mendeleev.

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 Mendeleev and the Periodic Table

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 Atomic Number
• Mendeleev’s table was based on atomic masses. It
was the most fundamental property of elements
known at the time.
• About 35 years later, the nuclear atom was
discovered by Ernest Rutherford.
• Henry Moseley developed the concept of atomic
number experimentally. The number of protons was
considered the basis for the periodic property of
elements.

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 Periodicity
• Periodicity is the repetitive pattern of a property for
elements based on atomic number.
• The following properties are discussed in this chapter:
– Sizes of atoms and ions
– Ionization energy
– Electron affinity
– Some group chemical property trends
• First, we will discuss a fundamental property that
leads to many of the trends, effective nuclear charge.

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 Effective Nuclear Charge
• Many properties of atoms depend on electron
configuration and on how strongly the outer electrons
in the atoms are attracted to the nucleus.
• The attractive force depends on the magnitude of the
nuclear charge and on the average distance between
the nucleus and the electron.

Figure 7.2 An analogy for

effective nuclear charge.
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 Effective Nuclear Charge
• Electrons are both attracted to the nucleus and
repelled by other electrons.
• The forces an electron experiences depend on both
factors.

Figure 7.3 Effective nuclear

charge.
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 Radial Probability Functions

Figure 7.4 Comparison of 1s, 2s, and 2p radial probability functions.

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 Effective Nuclear Charge
• The effective nuclear charge,
Zeff, is found this way:

Zeff = Z − S
– where Z is the atomic number
and S is a screening constant,
usually close to the number of
inner electrons.

• Effective nuclear charge is a

periodic property:
– It increases across a period.
Figure 7.5 Variations in effective
– It increases slightly down nuclear charge for period 2 and period
3 elements.
a group.
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 What Is the Size of an Atom?
• The nonbonding atomic radius,
or van der Waals radius, is half
of the shortest distance
separating two nuclei during a
collision of atoms.
• The bonding atomic radius, or
covalent radius, is half the
distance between nuclei in a
bond.

Figure 7.6 Distinction between nonbonding

and bonding atomic radii within a molecule.
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 Sizes of Atoms
• This figure shows the trend in bonding atomic radius.
• The bonding atomic radius tends to
– increase from top to bottom of a group (n ↑).
– decrease from left to right across a period (Zeff ↑).

Figure 7.7 Trends in bonding atomic

radii for periods 1 through 5.
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Sample Exercise 7.1 Bond Lengths in a Molecule
Natural gas used in home heating and cooking is odorless. Because natural gas leaks pose the danger of explosion
or suffocation, various smelly substances are added to the gas to allow detection of a leak. One such substance is
methyl mercaptan, CH3SH. Use Figure 7.7 to predict the lengths of the C—S, C—H, and S—H bonds in this
molecule.

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Sample Exercise 7.1 Bond Lengths in a Molecule
Continued

Solution
Analyze and Plan We are given three bonds and told to use Figure 7.7 for bonding atomic radii. We will assume
that each bond length is the sum of the bonding atomic radii of the two atoms involved.

Solve

Check The experimentally determined bond lengths are C—S = 133 pm, C—H = 110 pm, and S—H = 182 pm. (In
general, the lengths of bonds involving hydrogen show larger deviations from the values predicted from bonding
atomic radii than do bonds involving larger atoms.)

Comment Notice that our estimated bond lengths are close but not exact matches to the measured bond lengths.
Bonding atomic radii must be used with some caution in estimating bond lengths.

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Sample Exercise 7.1 Bond Lengths in a Molecule
Continued

Practice Exercise
Using Figure 7.7, predict which is longer, the P—Br bond in PBr 3 or the As—Cl bond in AsCl3.

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Sample Exercise 7.2 Predicting Relative Sizes of Atomic Radii
Referring to the periodic table, arrange (as much as possible) the atoms B, C, Al, and Si in order of increasing size.

Solution
Analyze and Plan We are given the chemical symbols for four elements and told to use their relative positions in the
periodic table to predict the relative size of their atomic radii. We can use the two periodic trends described in the text
to help with this problem.

Solve
B and C are in the same period, with C to the right of B. Therefore,
we expect the radius of C to be smaller than that of B
because radii usually decrease as we move across a period. radius C < radius B

Al and Si are in the same period, with Si to the right of Al. radius Si < radius Al

The radius increases as we move down a group with radius B < radius Al
Al and B belonging to the same group, as do C and Si. radius C < radius Si

Combining these comparisons, we can conclude that C has the

smallest radius and Al the largest. Unfortunately, the two periodic
trends available to us do not supply enough information to
determine the relative sizes of B and Si. radius C < radius B  radius Si < radius Al

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Sample Exercise 7.2 Predicting Relative Sizes of Atomic Radii
Continued

Check Referring back to Figure 7.7, we can obtain numerical values for each atomic radius that allow us to say that
the radius of Si is greater than that of B.

C(076 pm) < B (084 pm) < Si (111 pm) < Al (121 pm)

If you examine Figure 7.7 carefully, you will discover that for the sand p-block elements the increase in radius moving
one element down a column tends to be greater than the increase moving one element left across a row. There are
exceptions, however.

Comment Note that the trends we have just discussed are for the s- and p-block elements. As seen in Figure 7.7, the
transition elements do not show a regular decrease moving across a period.

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Sample Exercise 7.2 Predicting Relative Sizes of Atomic Radii
Continued

Practice Exercise
Arrange Be, C, K, and Ca in order of increasing atomic radius.

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 Sizes of Ions
• Determined by interatomic distances in ionic
compounds.
• Ionic size depends on
– the nuclear charge
– the number of electrons
– the orbitals in which valence electrons reside

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 Sizes of Ions
• Cations are smaller than
their parent atoms:
– The outermost electron
is removed and
repulsions between
electrons are reduced.
• Anions are larger than
their parent atoms:
– Electrons are added and
repulsions between
electrons are increased.

Figure 7.8 Cation and anion size.

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 Sizes of Ions
• For ions carrying the same charge, ionic radius
increases as we move down a column in the periodic
table.
• In other words, as the principal quantum number of
the outermost occupied orbital of an ion increases, the
radius of the ion increases.

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Sample Exercise 7.3 Predicting Relative Sizes of Atomic and Ionic Radii
Arrange Mg2+, Ca2+, and Ca in order of decreasing radius.

Solution
Cations are smaller than their parent atoms, and so Ca 2+ < Ca. Because Ca is below Mg in group 2A, Ca 2+ is larger
than Mg2+. Consequently, Ca > Ca2+ > Mg2+.

Practice Exercise
Arrange the following atoms and ions in order of increasing ionic radius: F, S 2–, Cl, and Se2–.

(a) F < S2– < Cl < Se2–

(b) F < Cl < S2– < Se2–
(c) F < S2– < Se2– < Cl
(d) Cl < F < Se2– < S2–
(e) S2– < F < Se2– < Cl

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 Size of Ions—
Isoelectronic Series
• In an isoelectronic series, ions have the same
number of electrons.
• Ionic size decreases with an increasing nuclear
charge.
– An isoelectronic series (10 electrons)
– Note increasing nuclear charge with decreasing ionic
radius as atomic number increases

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Sample Exercise 7.4 Ionic Radii in an Isoelectronic Series
Arrange the ions K+, Cl–, Ca2+, and S2– in order of decreasing size.

Solution
This is an isoelectronic series, with all ions having 18 electrons. In such a series, size decreases as nuclear charge
(atomic number) increases. The atomic numbers of the ions are S 16, Cl 17, K 19, Ca 20. Thus, the ions decrease in
size in the order S2– > Cl– > K+ > Ca2+.

Practice Exercise
Arrange the following ions in order of increasing ionic radius: Br –, Rb+, Se2–, Sr2+, Te2–.

(a) Sr2+ < Rb+ < Br– < Se2– < Te2–
(b) Br– < Sr2+ < Se2– < Te2– < Rb+
(c) Rb+ < Sr2+ < Se2– < Te2– < Br–
(d) Rb+ < Br– < Sr2+ < Se2– < Te2–
(e) Sr2+ < Rb+ < Br– < Te2– < Se2–

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 Ionic Size and Lithium-Ion Battery

Figure 7.9 Schematic of a lithium-ion battery.

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 Ionization Energy (I)
• The ionization energy is the minimum energy required
to remove an electron from the ground state of a
gaseous atom or ion.
– The first ionization energy, I1, is that energy required to
remove the first electron.
– The second ionization energy, I2, is that energy required
to remove the second electron.
• Note: The higher the ionization energy, the more
difficult it is to remove an electron!

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 Ionization Energy
• It requires more energy to remove each successive
electron.
• When all valence electrons have been removed, it
takes a great deal more energy to remove the next
electron (a core electron).

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Sample Exercise 7.5 Trends in Ionization Energy
Three elements are indicated in the periodic
table in the margin. Which one has the largest
second ionization energy?

Solution
Analyze and Plan The locations of the elements in the periodic table allow us to predict the electron configurations.
The greatest ionization energies involve removal of core electrons. Thus, we should look first for an element with only
one electron in the outermost occupied shell.

Solve The red box represents Na, which has one valence electron. The second ionization energy of this element is
associated, therefore, with the removal of a core electron. The other elements indicated, S (green) and Ca (blue), have
two or more valence electrons. Thus, Na should have the largest second ionization energy.

Check A chemistry handbook gives these I2 values: Ca, 1145 kJ/mol; S, 2252 kJ/mol; Na, 4562 kJ/mol.

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Sample Exercise 7.5 Trends in Ionization Energy
Continued

Practice Exercise
The third ionization energy of bromine is the energy required for which of the following processes?
(a) Br(g) Br+(g) + e–
(b) Br+(g) Br2+(g) + e–
(c) Br(g) Br2+(g) + 2 e–
(d) Br(g) Br3+(g) + 3 e–
(e) Br2+(g) Br3+(g) + e–

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 Periodic Trends in
First Ionization Energy (I1)
1. I1 generally increases across a period.
2. I1 generally decreases down a group.
3. The s- and p-block elements show a larger range of
values for I1. (The d-block generally increases slowly
across the period; the f-block elements show only
small variations.)

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 Factors that Influence Ionization Energy
• Smaller atoms have higher I values.
• I values depend on effective nuclear charge and average
distance of the electron from the nucleus.

Figure 7.10 The first ionization

energies of the elements in
kJ/mol.
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 Irregularities in the General Trend
• The trend is not followed when the added valence
electron in the next element
– enters a new sublevel (higher energy sublevel);
– is the first electron to pair in one orbital of the
sublevel (electron repulsions lower energy).

Figure 7.11 2p orbital filling in nitrogen and oxygen.

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 Electron Configurations of Ions
• Cations: The electrons are lost from the highest energy
level (n value).
– Li+ is 1s2 (losing a 2s electron)
– Fe2+ is 1s22s22p63s23p63d6 (losing two 4s electrons)
• Anions: The electron configurations are filled to ns2np6;
for example, F– is 1s22s22p6 (gaining one electron in
2p).

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Sample Exercise 7.6 Periodic Trends in Ionization Energy
Referring to the periodic table, arrange the atoms Ne, Na, P, Ar, K in order of increasing first ionization energy.

Solution
Analyze and Plan We are given the chemical symbols for five elements. To rank them according to increasing first
ionization energy, we need to locate each element in the periodic table. We can then use their relative positions and
the trends in first ionization energies to predict their order.

Solve Ionization energy increases as we move left to right across a period and decreases as we move down a group.
Because Na, P, and Ar are in the same period, we expect I1 to vary in the order Na < P < Ar. Because Ne is above Ar
in group 18, we expect Ar < Ne. Similarly, K is directly below Na in group 1, and so we expect K < Na.

From these observations, we conclude that the

ionization energies follow the order

K < Na < P < Ar < Ne

Check The values shown in Figure 7.10

confirm this prediction.

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Sample Exercise 7.6 Periodic Trends in Ionization Energy
Continued

Practice Exercise

Consider the following statements about first ionization energies:

(i) Because the effective nuclear charge for Mg is greater than that for Be, the first ionization energy of Mg is greater
than that of Be.
(ii) The first ionization energy of O is less than that of N because in O we must pair electrons in one of the 2p orbitals.
(iii)The first ionization energy of Ar is less than that of Ne because a 3p electron in Ar is farther from the nucleus than
a 2p electron in Ne.

Which of the statements (i), (ii), and (iii) is or are true?

(a) Only one of the statements is true.
(b) Statements (i) and (ii) are true.
(c) Statements (i) and (iii) are true.
(d) Statements (ii) and (iii) are true.
(e) All three statements are true.

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Sample Exercise 7.7 Electron Configurations of Ions
Write the electron configurations for (a) Ca 2+, (b) Co3+, and (c) S2–.

Solution
Analyze and Plan We are asked to write electron configurations for three ions. To do so, we first write the electron
configuration of each parent atom and then remove or add electrons to form the ions. Electrons are first removed
from the orbitals having the highest value of n. They are added to the empty or partially filled orbitals having the
lowest value of n.

Solve
(a) Calcium (atomic number 20) has the electron configuration [Ar]4s2. To form a 2+ ion, the two outer 4s electrons
must be removed, giving an ion that is isoelectronic with Ar:

Ca2+: [Ar]

(b) Cobalt (atomic number 27) has the electron configuration [Ar]4s23d7. To form a 3+ ion, three electrons must be
removed. As discussed in the text, the 4s electrons are removed before the 3d electrons. Consequently, we
remove the two 4s electrons and one of the 3d electrons, and the electron configuration for Co 3+ is

Co3+ : [Ar]3d6

(c) Sulfur (atomic number 16) has the electron configuration [Ne]3s23p4. To form a 2– ion, two electrons must be
added. There is room for two additional electrons in the 3p orbitals. Thus, the S2– electron configuration is

S2– : [Ne]3s23p6 = [Ar]

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Sample Exercise 7.7 Electron Configurations of Ions
Continued

Comment Remember that many of the common ions of the s- and p-block elements, such as Ca2+ and S2–, have the
same number of electrons as the closest noble gas. (Section 2.7)

Practice Exercise
The ground-state electron configuration of a Tc atom is [Kr]5s24d5. What is the electron configuration of a Tc 3+ ion?
(a) [Kr]4d4 (b) [Kr]5s24d2 (c) [Kr]5s14d3 (d) [Kr]5s24d8 (e) [Kr]4d10

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 Electron Affinity
• Electron affinity is the energy change accompanying
the addition of an electron to a gaseous atom:
Cl + e– Cl–

• It is typically exothermic, so, for most elements, it is

negative!

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 Ionization Energy and Electron Affinity
• Ionization energy measures the energy change when
an atom loses an electron.
• Electron affinity measures the energy change when
an atom gains an electron.

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 General Trend in Electron Affinity
• Not much change in a group.
• Across a period, it generally
increases. Three notable
exceptions include the
following:
1) Group 2A: s sublevel is full
2) Group 5A: p sublevel is
half-full
3) Group 8A: p sublevel is full
– Note: The electron affinity for Figure 7.12 Electron affinity in kJ/mol
many of these elements is for selected s - and p -block elements.
positive (X– is unstable).

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 Metal, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

Figure 7.13 Metals, metalloids, and nonmetals.

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 Metals Differ from Nonmetals
• Metals tend to form cations.
• Nonmetals tend to form anions.
• Note the special property of hydrogen.

Figure 7.15 Representative oxidation states of the elements.

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 Metals
• Most of the elements in nature are metals.
• Properties of metals:
– Shiny luster
Figure 7.14 Metals are shiny,
– Conduct heat and electricity malleable, and ductile.

– Malleable and ductile

– Solids at room temperature (except mercury)
– Low ionization energies/form cations easily

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 Metal Chemistry
• Compounds formed between metals and nonmetals
tend to be ionic.
• Metal oxides tend to be basic and react with acids.

© 2022 Pearson Education Ltd. Figure 7.16 Metal oxides react with acids.
Sample Exercise 7.8 Properties of Metal Oxides
(a) Would you expect scandium oxide to be a solid, liquid, or gas at room temperature?
(b) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction of scandium oxide with nitric acid.

Solution
Analyze and Plan We are asked about one physical property of scandium oxide—its state at room temperature—
and one chemical property—how it reacts with nitric acid.

Solve
(a) Because scandium oxide is the oxide of a metal, we expect it to be an ionic solid. Indeed it is, with the very high
melting point of 2485 °C.

(b) In compounds, scandium has a 3+ charge, Sc 3+, and the oxide ion is O2–. Consequently, the formula of scandium
oxide is Sc2O3. Metal oxides tend to be basic and, therefore, to react with acids to form a salt plus water. In this
case, the salt is scandium nitrate, Sc(NO 3)3:

Sc2O3(s) + 6 HNO3(aq) 2 Sc(NO3)3(aq) + 3 H2O(l)

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Sample Exercise 7.8 Properties of Metal Oxides
Continued

Practice Exercise
Suppose that a metal oxide of formula M 2O3 were soluble in water. What would be the major product or products of
dissolving the substance in water?

(a) MH3(aq) + O2(g)

(b) M(s) + H2(g) + O2(g)
(c) M3+ (aq) + H2O2(aq)
(d) M(OH)2(aq)
(e) M(OH)3(aq)

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 Nonmetals
• Nonmetals are found on the right hand side of the
periodic table.
• Properties of nonmetals include the following:
– Solid, liquid, or gas (depends on element)
– Solids are dull, brittle, poor conductors
– Large negative electron affinity, so they form anions readily

Figure 7.17 Sulfur, known to

the medieval world as
“brimstone,” is a nonmetal.
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 Nonmetal Chemistry
• Substances containing only nonmetals are molecular
compounds.
• Most nonmetal oxides are acidic.

Figure 7.18 The reaction of CO2

with water containing a
bromthymol blue indicator.
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 Nonmetal Chemistry
• Like acids, most nonmetal oxides dissolve in basic
solutions to form a salt plus water:

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 A Comparison of the Properties
of Metals and Nonmetals

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Sample Exercise 7.9 Reactions of Nonmetal Oxides
Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of solid selenium dioxide, SeO 2(s), with (a) water, (b) aqueous
sodium hydroxide.

Solution
Analyze and Plan We note that selenium is a nonmetal. We therefore need to write chemical equations for the
reaction of a nonmetal oxide with water and with a base, NaOH. Nonmetal oxides are acidic, reacting with water to
form an acid and with bases to form a salt and water.

Solve
(a) The reaction between selenium dioxide and water is like that between carbon dioxide and water (Equation 7.13):

SeO2(s) + H2O(l) H2SeO3(aq)

(It does not matter that SeO2 is a solid and CO2 is a gas under ambient conditions; the point is that both are
water-soluble nonmetal oxides.)

(b) The reaction with sodium hydroxide is like that in Equation 7.15:

SeO2(s) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na2SeO3(aq) + H2O(l)

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Sample Exercise 7.9 Reactions of Nonmetal Oxides
Continued

Practice Exercise
Consider the following oxides: SO2, Y2O3, MgO, Cl2O, N2O5.
How many are expected to form acidic solutions in water?
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (e) 5

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 Metalloids
• Metalloids have some characteristics of metals and
some of nonmetals.
• Several metalloids are electrical semiconductors
(computer chips).

Figure 7.19 Elemental silicon.

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 Group Trends
• Elements in a group have similar properties.
• Trends also exist within groups.
• Groups compared:
– Group 1: the alkali metals
– Group 2: the alkaline earth metals
– Hydrogen is a nonmetal
– Group 16: the oxygen group
– Group 17: the halogens
– Group 18: the noble gases

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 Alkali Metals
• Alkali metals are soft,
metallic solids.
• They are found only in
compounds in nature, not
in their elemental forms.
• Typical metallic properties
(luster, conductivity) are
seen in them.

Figure 7.20 Sodium, like the other

alkali metals, is soft enough to be
cut with a knife.

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 Alkali Metal Properties
• They have low densities and melting points.
• They also have low ionization energies.
• The alkali metals are all very reactive, readily losing
one electron to form ions carrying a 1+ charge.

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 Alkali Metal Chemistry
• Their reactions with water are famously exothermic.

Figure 7.21 The alkali metals react vigorously with water.

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 Differences in Alkali Metal Chemistry
• Lithium reacts with oxygen to make an oxide:
4 Li + O2 2 Li2O
• Sodium reacts with oxygen to form a peroxide:
2 Na + O2 Na2O2
• K, Rb, and Cs also form superoxides:

K + O2 KO2

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 Flame Tests
• Qualitative tests for alkali metals include their
characteristic colors in flames.
• These are caused by electronic transitions.

Figure 7.22 Placed in a flame, ions of each alkali metal emit light
of a characteristic wavelength.
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 Flame Tests

Figure 7.23 The characteristic yellow light in a sodium lamp results

from excited electrons in the high-energy 3p orbital falling back to
the lower-energy 3s orbital.

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Sample Exercise 7.10 Reactions of an Alkali Metal
Write a balanced equation for the reaction of cesium metal with (a) Cl 2(g), (b) H2O(l), (c) H2(g).

Solution
Analyze and Plan Because cesium is an alkali metal, we expect its chemistry to be dominated by oxidation of the
metal to Cs+ ions. Further, we recognize that Cs is far down the periodic table, which means it is among the most
active of all metals and probably reacts with all three substances.

Solve The reaction between Cs and Cl 2 is a simple combination reaction between a metal and a nonmetal, forming
the ionic compound CsCl:

2 Cs(s) + Cl2(g) 2 CsCl(s)

From Equations 7.18 and 7.16, we predict the reactions of cesium with water and hydrogen to proceed as follows:

2 Cs(s) + 2 H2O(l) 2 CsOH(aq) + H2(g)

2 Cs(s) + H2(g) 2 CsH(s)

All three reactions are redox reactions where cesium forms a Cs + ion. The Cl–, OH–, and H– are all 1– ions, which
means the products have 1:1 stoichiometry with Cs +.

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Sample Exercise 7.10 Reactions of an Alkali Metal
Continued

Practice Exercise

Consider the following three statements about the reactivity of an alkali metal M with oxygen gas:
(i) Based on their positions in the periodic table, the expected product is the ionic oxide M 2O.
(ii) Some of the alkali metals produce metal peroxides or metal superoxides when they react with oxygen.
(iii)When dissolved in water, an alkali metal oxide produces a basic solution.

Which of the statements (i), (ii), and (iii) is or are true?

(a) Only one of the statements is true.
(b) Statements (i) and (ii) are true.
(c) Statements (i) and (iii) are true.
(d) Statements (ii) and (iii) are true.
(e) All three statements are true.

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 The Improbable Development
of Lithium Drugs
• The soft drink 7UPR originally contained a
lithium salt that was claimed to give the
beverage healthful benefits, including “an
abundance of energy, enthusiasm, a clear
complexion, lustrous hair, and shining eyes!”
• The lithium was removed from the beverage
in the early 1950s, about the time that the
antipsychotic action of Li+ was discovered.
• Because lithium overdose can cause severe
side effects in humans, including kidney
failure and death, lithium salts were not
approved as antipsychotic drugs for humans
Figure 7.24 Lithium no more. until 1970.

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 Alkaline Earth Metals
• Alkaline earth metals have higher densities and melting
points than alkali metals.
• Their ionization energies are low, but not as low as
those of alkali metals.
• They readily form 2+ ions, losing their 2 valence
electrons.

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 Alkaline Earth Metals
• Beryllium does not react with
water, and magnesium reacts
only with steam, but the other
alkaline earth metals react
readily with water.
• Reactivity tends to increase as
you go down the group.

Figure 7.25 Elemental calcium

reacts with water.
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 Hydrogen
• Is 1s1 a metallic electron configuration like the other
ns1 elements?
• We do think of acid compounds, like HCl, as having
H+, however they are really covalent in nature.
• When reacting with metals, hydride anions (H–) form.

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 Group 16
Increasing in Metallic Character down the Group
• Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals.
• Tellurium is a metalloid.
• The radioactive polonium is a metal.
• Trend: Oxygen is more likely to form 2– anion;
polonium is most likely to have a positive charge.

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 Allotropes of Oxygen
• Oxygen can exist as two different elemental forms:
– Oxygen gas, O2 (technically called dioxygen)
– Ozone gas, O3

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 Hydrogen Peroxide
• Bottles of aqueous hydrogen peroxide are topped
with caps that are able to release the O2(g) produced
before the pressure inside becomes too great.

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 Sulfur
• After oxygen, the most important member of group 16
is sulfur.
• This element exists in several allotropic forms, the
most common and stable of which is the yellow solid
having the molecular formula S8.

Figure 7.26 Elemental sulfur exists as the S8 molecule.

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 Group 17 — Halogens
• Fluorine and chlorine are gases at room temperature,
bromine is a liquid, and iodine is a solid.

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 Group 17 — Halogens
• The halogens are typical nonmetals.
• Each element consists of diatomic molecules: F2, Cl2,
Br2, and I2.
• They have highly negative electron affinities, so they
exist as anions in nature.
• They react directly with metals to form metal halides.

Figure 7.27 The elemental halogens

exist as diatomic molecules.
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 Group 18 — Noble Gases
• The noble gases have very large ionization energies.
• Their electron affinities are positive (can’t form stable
anions).
• Therefore, they are relatively unreactive. They are
found as monatomic gases.

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Sample Integrative Exercise Putting Concepts Together
The element bismuth (Bi, atomic number 83) is the heaviest member of group 15. A salt of the element, bismuth
subsalicylate, is the active ingredient in Pepto-Bismol ®, an over-the-counter medication for gastric distress.

(a) Based on values presented in Figure 7.7 and Tables 7.5 and 7.6, what might you expect for the bonding atomic
radius of bismuth?
(b) What accounts for the general increase in atomic radius going down the group 15 elements?
(c) Another major use of bismuth has been as an ingredient in low-melting metal alloys, such as those used in fire
sprinkler systems and in typesetting. The element itself is a brittle white crystalline solid. How do these
characteristics fit with the fact that bismuth is in the same periodic group with such nonmetallic elements as
nitrogen and phosphorus?
(d) Bi2O3 is a basic oxide. Write a balanced chemical equation for its reaction with dilute nitric acid. If 6.77 g of Bi 2O3
is dissolved in dilute acidic solution to make 0.500 L of solution, what is the molarity of the solution of Bi 3+ ion?
(e) 209Bi is the heaviest stable isotope of any element. How many protons and neutrons are present in this nucleus?
(f) The density of Bi at 25 °C is 9.808 g ⁄ cm3. How many Bi atoms are present in a cube of the element that is 5.00
cm on each edge? How many moles of the element are present?

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Sample Integrative Exercise Putting Concepts Together
Continued

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Sample Integrative Exercise Putting Concepts Together
Continued

Solution
(a) Bismuth is directly below antimony, Sb, in group 15. Based on the observation that atomic radii increase as we
go down a column, we would expect the radius of Bi to be greater than that of Sb, which is 139 pm. We also
know that atomic radii generally decrease as we proceed from left to right in a period. Tables 7.5 and 7.6 each
give an element in the same period, namely Ba and Po. We would therefore expect that the radius of Bi is
smaller than that of Ba (215 pm) and larger than that of Po (140 pm). We also see that in other periods, the
difference in radius between the neighboring group 15 and group 16 elements is relatively small. We might
therefore expect that the radius of Bi is slightly larger than that of Po—much closer to the radius of Po than to
the radius of Ba. The tabulated value for the atomic radius on Bi is 148 pm, in accord with our expectations.

(b) The general increase in radius with increasing atomic number in the group 15 elements occurs because
additional shells of electrons are being added, with corresponding increases in nuclear charge. The core
electrons in each case largely screen the outermost electrons from the nucleus, so the effective nuclear charge
does not vary greatly as we go to higher atomic numbers. However, the principal quantum number, n, of the
outermost electrons steadily increases, with a corresponding increase in orbital radius.

(c) The contrast between the properties of bismuth and those of nitrogen and phosphorus illustrates the general rule
that there is a trend toward increased metallic character as we move down in a given group. Bismuth, in fact, is
a metal. The increased metallic character occurs because the outermost electrons are more readily lost in
bonding, a trend that is consistent with its lower ionization energy.

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Sample Integrative Exercise Putting Concepts Together
Continued
(d) Following the procedures described in Section 4.2 for writing molecular and net ionic equations, we have the
following:

Molecular equation:

Bi2O3(s) + 6 HNO3(aq) 2 Bi(NO3)3(aq) + 3 H2O(l)

Net ionic equation:

Bi2O3(s) + 6 H+(aq) 2 Bi3 + (aq) + 3 H2O(l)

In the net ionic equation, nitric acid is a strong acid and Bi(NO 3)3 is a soluble salt, so we need to show only the
reaction of the solid with the hydrogen ion forming the Bi 3+(aq) ion and water. To calculate the concentration of
the solution, we proceed as follows (Section 4.5):

(e) Recall that the atomic number of any element is the number of protons and electrons in a neutral atom of the
element. (Section 2.3) Bismuth is element 83; there are therefore 83 protons in the nucleus. Because the
atomic mass number is 209, there are 209 – 83 = 126 neutrons in the nucleus.

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Sample Integrative Exercise Putting Concepts Together
Continued
(f) We can use the density and the atomic weight to determine the number of moles of Bi, and then use Avogadro’s
number to convert the result to the number of atoms. (Sections 1.4 and 3.4) The volume of the cube is
(5.00) cm = 125 cm . Then we have
3 3 3

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