4.

CAMS
• A Cam is an irregular-shaped mechanical member used for transmitting a
desired motion to another element, known as follower, by direct contact
•The cam and follower have line contact and constitute a higher pair.
•A cam may:
• Stationary
• Translate, or
• Rotate
while the follower:
•Translate ,or
•Rotate
• usually rotate at a constant angular speed
• Provide a means of achieving any desired
follower motion
• are used in many machines
•Inlet and exhaust valves of internal combustion engines
•Machine tools, mechanical computers, instruments, etc…

1
4.1. Classification of Followers
Followers may be classified based on the following:
1. Construction of the surface of contact
2. Types of follower motion
3. Location of line of motion with respect to center of cam
4.1.1 Classification of Followers Based on Surface of Contact
a. A knife-edge follower:
• a sharp, knife-edge is in contact with the cam
 Produce excessive cam wear
 They are of little practical use
b. A roller follower:
• A cylindrical roller is in contact with the cam
• At low speeds pure rolling contact is possible but at high speeds some sliding
can occur
• Reduce wear of the cam surface at high peripheral speeds

2
c. A flat-faced follower:
• Flat face is in contact with the cam
• Cause high surface stress
• To reduce the surface stress the flat face is modified to a spherical surface
with a large radius

3
4
 5.1.2 . Classification of followers based on types of follower motion
a) Translatory followers : as the cam rotates the follower reciprocates in
guides.
b) Oscillatory follower : for a uniform rotary motion of the cam, the
follower oscillates through a certain angle.

5
 5.1.3. Classification of followers based on follower line of motion
a) Radial follower : translate along an axis passing through the cam
center of rotation
b) Off-set follower : the axis of follower movement is displaced from the
cam center of rotation
c) Oscillating follower : oscillate about the axis of the follower through
a certain angle.
5.2. CLASSIFICATION OF CAMS
• Cams are classified based on:
a) Cam shape : as disc cams, translation cams, cylindrical cams, globoid
cams, etc.
b) Follower motion : eg. Dwell-rise-dwell-return, dwell-rise-return, etc.
c) Cam constraint : as spring or pre-loaded cams and positive return
cams.
 In pre-loaded cams the follower is held in contact by an external force
provided by spring, gravity, etc.
 In positive return cams no external force is required to keep the cam and
the follower in contact.

6
 5.3. GRAPHICAL DESIGN OF CAM CURVES
5.3.1 Disc cam with a flat-faced radial follower:
• The cam rotates at a constant angular velocity
• The follower moves upwards a distance of a specified rise.
• The return motion is assumed to be through the same displacement
• To determine the cam contour graphically, the mechanism is inverted
by holding the cam stationary and making the follower move around it
(relative motion is not affected).

Procedures of construction
i. Rotate the follower about the cam center in opposite direction to cam
rotation
ii. Move the follower radially outward (or inward in case of return
motion) the correct amount for each division of cam rotation.
iii. Draw the cam surface tangent to the polygon that is formed by the
various position of the follower.

7
8
5.3.2 .Disc cam with a radial roller follower
• The center of the roller moves with a prescribed motion.
• Same procedure of construction as for a cam with a flat-faced follower,
with the exception that the cam contour is drawn tangent to the various
positions of the roller of the follower

9
5.3.3. Disc cam with oscillating follower
• The follower is rotated about the cam center and at the same time it
rotates about its center through the required displacement angle for each
position.
Procedure of construction
• The centers of the follower rotation are indicated by 0, 1, 2,…, 11
• With this points as centers and radius 00’ arcs are drawn to intersect
with other curves drawn with O as center and the required follower
displacement
• The intersection of this arcs give points 0’, 1’, 2’, …, 11’.
• Drawing tangent lines through these points to the circles drawn with
centers 0, 1, 2, …, 11, determines the polygon which circumscribes the
cam
• From the polygon the cam profile can be drawn by passing a curve
tangent to the sides of the polygon. See figure below.

10
11
5.3.4. Positive Return Cams
• No external force is required to keep the cam and follower in contact.
• The displacement for the rise and return motions must be the same
and in opposite directions.
• As can be noted from the figure below, the width b is equal to the
diameter of the base plus the total rise of the follower.
• Points 1”, 2”, .., 12” are located on the flat face in such a way that
lines formed by diametrically opposite points are of equal length,
i.e. 1”7” = 2”8” = … = 6”12” = b.
– this condition provides a return motion which is the same as the outward
motion.
• Construction of a positive-return cam follows the same procedure as
cam construction for disc cams with flat-faced radial followers.

12
13
 5.4. NOMENCLATURE
 Base Circle :
 is the smallest circle that can be drawn about the center of cam rotation
and through the cam surface.
 Its size determines the size of the cam.
 Trace Point :
 A theoretical point on the cam follower which corresponds to the point of
a knife-edge follower
 It is used to generate the pitch curve.
 In a roller follower, the center of the roller represents the trace point.
 Pressure Angle :
 Is the angle b/n the direction of follower motion & a normal to the pitch
curve.
 Indicates that the force existing b/n the cam and follower are not in the
direction of the follower motion
 In which case, if the pressure angle is too large, the translating follower
may jam in its bearings.

14
  Important factor in determining the size of the cam.
 a small cam has a higher pressure angle and is steeper than a large cam
with a smaller pressure angle.
 large cam is undesirable b/c it uses more space and may produce
unbalance
 For good performance of the cam, the pressure angle should not exceed 30
o
.
 For a given displacement of the follower, the pressure angle can be
reduced by the following methods:
 increase the size of the base circle
 Increase the cam angle for a given follower displacement
 Change amount of follower offset.
 Pitch point : is a point on the pitch curve which designates the location of
maximum pressure angle.
 Pitch Circle : The circle about the center of cam rotation and through the
pitch point.
 Prime Circle : is the smallest circle about the center of cam rotation and
through the pitch curve.
 Lift or Rise : is the maximum travel of the follower from the lowest to the
top most position.

15
16
 5.5. Displacement Diagram
• Has an abscissa of the cam rotation angle, and the ordinate is the follower
travel.
• The displacement diagram identifies the following motion characteristics.
• The rise : motion of the follower away from the cam center,
• The dwell : those periods during which the follower is at rest, and
• The return : motion of the follower toward the cam center.

5.6. TYPES OF FOLLOWER MOTION

• The first step in the design of a cam curve consists in constructing the
associated displacement diagram.
• Some of the follower standard motions are
• Uniform, modified motion, simple harmonic, parabolic and cycloidal.
• The cam’s rises, dwells and returns must suitably be distributed around
the periphery of the cam.
• The periods of these cam’s motions occupy the time of one rotation of
the cam.

17
5.6.1 . Uniform Motion
• A follower has uniform motion when its velocity is constant.
• The follower moves through the same distance for each equal interval of
time or cam rotation angle.
• Simplest possible cam motion, but shock results from the changes in
velocity from zero to some finite value or vise-versa.
• Infinite accelerations and decelerations occur at the beginning and end of
the rise and return motions.

18
• Uniform motion can be represented by a simple equation like:
y  c (5.1)
Where y = follower displacement corresponding to the cam angle ;
c = constant to be determined from the boundary conditions.
If d = the total distance through which the follower is to rise
 = the angle in radians through which the cam is to rotate to
produce the required rise.
Then d  c (5.2)
or
d
c (5.3)

 the equation that represents the follower displacement is:
d
y  (5.4)


this is an equation of a straight line or uniform motion. 19

• The velocity and acceleration are obtained by differentiation.
dy d d d
v    (5.5)
dt  dt 
d 2 y d d
a 2  0 (5.6)
dt  dt
• Due to the infinite acceleration b/n the dwell and rise periods, the force
transmitted are very large and shock and other secondary effects result.

20
5.6.2 . Modified Uniform Motion
• The uniform-motion curve is modified to reduce the shock at the
beginning and end of the motion.
– This is done by using circular arcs at the beginning and end of the
motion which are tangent to the dwell and rise lines.

• Poor acceleration characteristics limits the use of this motion to low cam
speeds.
21
5.6.3. Parabolic Motion:
• It is a constant acceleration motion.
• For a given cam speed and follower rise, parabolic motion has the lowest
or maximum acceleration.
• It is recommended for low or moderate speeds.
• To construct the displacement diagram:
 Use even number of time divisions with least number of division equal to six.
 Through the origin of the displacement diagram, construct any line at any
angle to the y-axis or displacement axis.
 Divide this line into parts proportional to:
 1, 3, 5, 5, 3, 1 for six divisions
 1, 3, 5, 7, 7, 5, 3, 1 for eight divisions, and so on.
 Connect the last division with the point marked on the displacement axis
corresponding to the rise.
 Through the other divisions draw lines parallel to this line to obtain the
follower displacement for each division of cam rotation.

22
23
• The parabolic motion of the follower can be represented by the equation:

• y  c 2
(5.7)the follower rise
This equation is valid only up to the inflation point where
is d/2 and the cam angle is /2.

2d
c (5.8)
 2

and
2
 
y  2d   (5.9)
 
• The velocity and the acceleration of the follower is respectively:

dy 4d d 4d
v  2  2  (5.10)
dt  dt 
d 2 y 4 2 d
a 2  (5.11)
dt 2
24
• The velocity is maximum for =/2 and is given by
4d  2d
vmax   (5.12)
 2
2 
• For the second half of the motion the displacement equation can be given
as:
y  c1  c2  c 3  2 (5.13)

Where c1, c2, and c3 are constants to be evaluated from the boundary
conditions:
• The boundary conditions are:
when  = , y = d which yields
c1  c2   c 3  2  d (5.14)

when  = , v= 0 which yields

c2  2c 3   0 (5.15)
25
 and, when  = /2, v=vmax
 2d
c2  2c 3   (5.16)
2 
• solving equation (14), (15), and (16) for the unknowns simultaneously,

c1  d
4d
c2 

2d
c3  
2
• Substituting for the constants, the displacement equation becomes

4d 2d
y  d    2
(5.18a )
  2

or ,
   
2

y  d 1  21    (5.18b)
    
26
• The velocity and acceleration equations, respectively, are given by

dy 4d   
v  1   (5.19)
dt   
d2y 4 2 d
a 2  2 (5.20)
dt 
• Here we note that jerk, which is proportional to the rate of change of
force (acceleration), is infinite at the beginning and end of rise and at the
inflation point.

27
5.6.4. Simple Harmonic Motion
• Obtained graphically as shown in the figure below.

28
• The simple harmonic motion of follower can be represented by the
equation:
y  C1  C2 cos  (5.21)

• The constants C1 and C2 can be obtained from the boundary conditions:

y = 0 for  = 0 and
y = d for  = .
• Applying this conditions. We get

C1  C2 cos 0  0 (5.22)
C1  C2 cos   d (5.23)
• Solving for the constants

d
C1  C2 
2

29
the equation of the follower displacement is given by
d d
y  1  cos    1  cos r t  (5.24)
2 2

where the angular velocity of the rotational radius, r is taken to be constant.

• To relate the angular velocity of the rotational radius r to the cam
angular velocity ,
N.B. when  = , the corresponding cam rotation is 
 
 t , or t
r 
Which yields:
 
 (5.25)
r 
and

r   (5.26)
 30
• Substituting for r , the displacement equation is
d  
y  1  cos t  (5.27)
2  
• But the cam angle  = t. Hence the displacement equation becomes

d  
y  1  cos   (5.28)
2  
• The velocity and acceleration are given by time derivatives of
displacement.

d 
v  sin (5.29)
2 
2
d    
a    cos (5.30)
2   
31
5.6.5. Cycloidal Motion
• Often employed to avoid infinite jerk between rise, return and dwell
motions.
• Motion which has a zero acceleration at the beginning and end of the rise.
• its displacement diagram is obtained from cycloid, which is defined as
the locus of a point on a circle that rolls on a straight line.
• for cam rotation angle , the displacement of the cycloidal motion is the
rise d, which must be equal to the circumference of the rolling circle.

• 2which
From r  dthe radius of the rolling circle is obtained(to5.be
31)

d
r (5.32)
2
32
• The construction of the displacement diagram for the cycloidal motion is
as shown in the figure (a) below.

33
• It can be shown that the ordinate of a point P on the displacement
diagram is:
y  r   sin   (5.33)
• Since the rolling circle makes one revolution for the rise (return) d of the
follower, the displacement of the rotational radius can be related to the
cam angular displacement:

  2 (5.34)

• The displacement y of the follower with cycloidal motion is then given
by
   
y  r  2  sin( 2 )  (5.35)
   
• Substituting for r,
 1  
y  d   sin(2 )  (5.36)
  2  
34
• The velocity and acceleration of the cycloidal motion are then:
d  2 
v 1  cos(  )  (5.37)
   
2
  2
a  2d   sin(  ) (5.38)
  

35
5.6.6. Advanced CAM Curves
• for high-speed cams the selection of the motion of the cam follower must
not be based only on the displacement but also on forces acting on the
system as a result of the motion selected.
• Dynamic loading produces impact loads, which may cause:
• Structural damage
• Undesirable vibrations
• Jerk is an indication of the impact characteristics of the loading;
• Impact might have jerk equal to infinity
• This may be improved by using:
• Cycloidal motion, or
• Combining portions of several basic curves, which can give low peak
acceleration (force).
• When basic curves are combined, the displacement curve must be tangent
at the junction and acceleration should be equal.
• By so selecting the acceleration at the junction, infinite jerk is avoided.
• At junctions the velocity also must match.

36
• Another method of eliminating the deficiencies of basic curves is to use
a polynomial curve. The polynomial equation is:
y  C0  C1  C2 2  C3 3  ...  Cn n (5.39)

where y is the follower rise,  is the cam angle as before, and C0, C1, C2, …, Cn
are constants, which depend on the boundary conditions.

• As an example let’s select the following boundary conditions.

for
 0  y  0, y  0, y  0
   y  d, y  0, y  0

37
• For this particular case, the polynomial equation to be used is:

y  C0  C1  C2 2  C3 3  C4 4  C5 5 (a)

• The first and second derivatives are:
d d d d d
y  C1  2C2  3C3 2  4C4 3  5C5 4 (b)
dt dt dt dt dt
2 2 2 2
 d   d  2  d  3  d 
y  2C2    6C 
3    12C 4    20C 5   (c )
 dt   dt   dt   dt 
or
y  C1  2C2  3C3 2  4C4 3  5C5 4 (d )

y  2C2 2  6C3 2  12C4 2 2  20C5 2 3 (e)

38
• Substituting the boundary conditions in equations (a), (d) and (e) and
solving for the constants, we obtain

C0  0, C1  0, C2  0,
10d 15d 6d
C3  , C4   , C5 
 3
 4
5
• The equations of motion are obtained by substituting for the constants.

10d 15d 6d
y  
3
  4
 5
(f)
 3
 4
 5

30d 60d 30d

y    2
 
3
4 (g)
 3
 4
 5

60 2 d 180 2 d 120 2 d

y   2  3 ( h)
 3
 4
 5

39
• This is called 3-4-5 polynomial, because of the remaining terms in the
follower displacement equation.
• This type of cam will begin and end its motion slower than other types.

40
5.6.7. Nonstandard Cam Curves
• Motion characteristics other than the simple dwell-rise-return can be
obtained by combining various curves like the following analytic
functions. (see figures given separately).

a. Harmonic and half harmonic

b. Cycloidal and half cycloidal, and
c. Eighth-power polynomial

• These can be used to generate the required motion of the follower and
are developed for cam design to avoid infinite jerk.

• It should be noted that in using these functions,

– the rise or return cam angle  should start at the position where the cam
rotation angle  = 0, and
– matching of angles should be carefully handled.

41
• By observing the velocity characteristics of the above mentioned
functions the following remarks can be made.
i. Harmonic motion characteristics can be applied with or without any dwell
after the rise or return motion.
ii. Cycloidal motion characteristics can also be applied in similar manner to
harmonic motion characteristics.
iii. The eighth-power polynomial motion is good for rise-dwell-return motion
with a dwell after the rise motion because it provides zero velocity condition
after the rise and avoid infinite jerk.

42
 5.7. ANALYTICAL CAM DESIGN
• Graphical method of cam design is limited to slow-speed applications
• The analytical design approach is adapted for high speed cams.
5.7.1. Disc Cam with Radial Flat-Faced Follower
• In analytical method of cam design, three valuable characteristics of the
cam are determined.
i. Parametric equation of the cam contour,
ii. Minimum radius of the cam to avoid cusps or sharp points, and
iii. Location of point of contact which gives the length of the follower face.
• Consider a cam with flat-faced radial follower, in which the cam rotates
with a constant angular velocity.
• The point of contact b/n the follower and the cam is at (x, y), which is at a
distance of l from the radial center-line of follower.
• Then the displacement of the follower from the origin is given by

r  C  f ( ) (5.40)
where C = minimum radius of the cam, and
f() = the desired motion of the follower, which is a function
of the angular displacement of the cam angle.

43
44
• From geometry of the cam and follower arrangement, the radial
displacement is
r  y sin   x cos (5.41)
And the length of the contact is given to be
l  y cos  x sin  (5.42)
• The right side of equation (5.42) is the derivative with respect to  of
equation (5.41).
 dr
l (5.43)
d
• And substituting for r,
d
l (c  f ( ))  f ( ) (5.44)
d
• The cam contour is determined by solving equation (5.41) and (5.42)
simultaneously from which we obtain
x  C  f ( ) cos  f ( ) sin  
 (5.45)
y  C  f ( ) sin   f ( ) cos 
45
Minimum Radius ‘c ‘ to Avoid Cusps
• A cusp occurs when both dx/d and dy/d are equal to zero.
 a point is formed on the cam as can be seen in the figure below.
• At this point, for the follower rotation by d, the point of contact (x, y)
does not change; i.e.
dx  dy 0 (5.46)
d d
• Differentiating equation (5.45)
dx 
 C  f ( )  f ( ) sin  
d 
 (5.47)
dy
 C  f ( )  f ( ) cos  
d 
• Equation (5.47) can become zero simultaneously if
C  f ( )  f ( )  0 (5.48)

46
47
 to avoid cusps, the condition that must be satisfied is
C  f ( )  f ( )  0 (5.49)
or
C   f ( )  f ( )  (5.50)
 f ( )  f ( ) 
• If the sum is positive, C becomes negative and
does not have any physical significance.
• In this case the minimum diameter of the cam is determined from the hub
of the cam.

5.7.2. Disc Cam with Radial Roller Follower

• The displacement of the center of the follower from the cam center is
given byr  R  f ( ) (5.51)
o

where Ro = minimum radius of the pitch circle of the cam;

f() = radial motion of the follower as a function of the cam angle.
• Let  = radius of curvature of the pitch surface
c = radius of curvature of the cam surface 48
Rr = radius of the roller.
49
• Keeping  constant, if Rr is increased, c decreases.
• If Rr is increased until Rr =  , c equals zero and the cam becomes
pointed.
• So to prevent pointed cams, Rr must be less than min where min is the
minimum value of  over a particular segment of profile being
considered.
• The radius of curvature at a point, 3expressed in polar coordinates (r,), is
given by: 2 2
 dr 
r2   
 d 
 2
(5.52)
 dr  d r
2
r 2  2   r  2 
 d   d 
where r() and the first two derivatives are continuous.
• From equation (5.52) min can be determined that prevent pointed cam
surface (but complex to solve)
 min is determined from curves developed for the ratio min /Ro for various
L/Ro values, where L is follower rise.
50
Harmonic motion

51
Harmonic motion

52
Cycloidal motion

53
Cycloidal motion

54
Eighth-power polynomial

55
Eighth-power polynomial

56
5.7.3 Maximum Pressure Angle α
• Determination of the maximum
pressure angle is often difficult
because of the algebraic
manipulations involved.
• Kloomok and Maffley have
developed a monogram, for
determining the maximum
pressure angle as a function of
the cam angle and L/Ro ratio for
harmonic, cycloidal and eighth-
power motions. (see the figure
above)

57
 5.8.Tangent Cam with Reciprocating
Roller Follower

• A cam in which the flanks are

straight and tangential to the base
and nose circles is known as a
tangential Cam.
• This type of cams are used in
engine cam shafts to operate the
inlet and exhaust valves.

58
5.8.1. Velocity and Acceleration Analysis of Tangent Cams
a) When the Roller is in Contact with the Straight Flanks.
• The figure on the slid above shows the roller having contact with the
straight flank.
• In its lowest position, the roller center lies at B.
• When the cam has rotated through the angle , the center of the roller
moves to C.
i.e. for the cam angle , the follower rise from its lowest position is given by
BC.
• From the figure it can be observed that OB = OG.
 y  OC  OG (5.53)
But
OG
OC  (5.54)
cos 
OG  1 
y   OG  OG  1 (5.55)
cos   cos  
59
• Since OG = OE + EG, where OE = r2 , the radius of the base circle, and
EG = r1 , radius of the roller,
OG  r1  r2  Ro (5.56)
OG  1   1 
y   OG  OG   1  Ro   1 (5.57)
cos   cos    cos  

• The velocity of the follower is obtained by differentiating equation (5.57)

with respect to time:
d   1 
v  y   Ro   1 (5.58)
dt   cos  
or
 sin  
v  Ro   (5.59)
 cos  
2

60
• The acceleration of the follower is given by
dv d  sin  
a  y   Ro  (5.60)
dt dt  cos  
2

or
 2  cos 2  
a   Ro 
2
 (5.61)
 cos  
3

b) When the Roller is in Contact with the Nose.

• A roller follower in contact with nose is as shown in the figure below.
• B is the center of the roller when it is in the top-most position.
• When the cam turns through an angle , the displacement of the roller,
measured from the top position of the roller, is given by

y  BC  OB  OC (5.62)

61
62
• But, OC =OE + EC,
 the displacement of the follower is
y  OB  (OE  EC )  OB  (OK cos   CK cos  ) (5.63)

• N.B. that CK = L , OK = r
y  OB  (OE  EC )  OB  (r cos  L cos  ) (5.64)

• Again from the above figure

EK  L sin   r sin  (5.65)

• From which we obtain

L2 sin 2   L2 (1  cos 2  )  r 2 sin 2  (5.66)
or
L cos   L 2
 r 2 sin 2   (5.67)

63
• Substituting the value of L cos, we get the displacement of the follower
to be
  r 
2 
y  r 1  cos    L 1  1    sin  
 2
(5.68)
 L 
 

• Differentiating equation (5.68) we obtain the velocity and acceleration

equations, respectively,
 
 
 r sin(2 ) 
v  r  sin    (5.69)
 r 2 
 2 L 1    sin  
 L 
 
 
 
2  rL2 cos( 2 )  r 3 sin 4  
a   r  cos   3  (5.70)
    r  2
 2 
  L1    sin   
2
    L   
  64
65