Roll No.

Name
41. RATIYA RAJU
42. SATANI DARSHANA
43. SAVALIYA MILAN
44. SISARA GOVIND
45. VALGAMA HARDIK
46. VADHER DARSHAK
47. VADOLIYA MILAN
48. VALA GOPAL
49. SHINGADIYA SHYAM
50. KARUD LUKMAN
AC DEFINITIONS :
One effective ampere is that ac current for which the power is the
same as for one ampere of dc current.

Effective current: iieffeff =

Effective current: 0.707 iimax
= 0.707 max
One effective volt is that ac voltage that gives an effective ampere
through a resistance of one ohm.

Effective voltage: VVeffeff =

Effective voltage: 0.707 VVmax
= 0.707 max
PURE RESISTANCE IN AC CIRCUITS
R Vmax Voltage
imax
A V Current

a.c. Source
Voltage
Voltageand
andcurrent
currentare
areininphase,
phase,and
andOhm’s
Ohm’slaw
lawapplies
appliesfor
foreffective
effective
currents
currentsand
andvoltages.
voltages.

Ohm’s law: Veff = ieffR

AC AND INDUCTORS :

i
I Inductor I i Inductor
Current Rise Current Decay
0.63I
0.37I

 Time, t  Time, t

The voltage V peaks first, causing rapid rise in i current which then peaks as
the emf goes to zero. Voltage leads (peaks before) the current by 900.
Voltage and current are out of phase.
 A PURE INDUCTOR IN AC CIRCUIT
L Vmax Voltage
imax
A V Current

a.c.
The
Thevoltage
voltagepeaks
peaks90
900before
0
beforethethecurrent
currentpeaks.
peaks.One
Onebuilds
buildsas
asthe
theother
other
falls
fallsand
andvice
viceversa.
versa.

The reactance may be defined as the non-resistive opposition to the flow of ac

current.
 INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
The back emf induced by a changing
current provides opposition to L
current, called inductive reactance XL.
A V

a.c.
Such losses are temporary, however, since the current changes direction,
periodically re-supplying energy so that no net power is lost in one cycle.

Inductive reactance XL is a function of both the inductance and the

frequency of the ac current.
CALCULATING INDUCTIVE REACTANCE

L Inductive Reactance:
A V X L  2 fL Unit is the 
Ohm's law: VL  iX L
a.c.

The voltage reading V in the above circuit at the instant the ac current is i
can be found from the inductance in H and the frequency in Hz.

(2 fL
VVLL  ii(2 fL)) Ohm’s law: VL = ieffXL
AC AND CAPACITANCE

Qmax q Capacitor i Capacitor

I
0.63 I Rise in Charge Current Decay

0.37 I

 Time, t  Time, t

The voltage V peaks ¼ of a cycle after the current i reaches its maximum.
The voltage lags the current. Current i and V out of phase.
A PURE CAPACITOR IN AC CIRCUIT
C Vmax Voltage
imax
A V Current

a.c.
The
Thevoltage
voltagepeaks
peaks90
900after
0
afterthe
thecurrent
currentpeaks.
peaks.One
Onebuilds
buildsas
asthe
theother
otherfalls
falls
and
andvice
viceversa.
versa.

The
Thediminishing currenti i builds
diminishingcurrent buildscharge
chargeon onCCwhich
whichincreases
increasesthe
theback
backemf
emf
of
ofVVC.C.
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
Energy gains and losses are also C
temporary for capacitors due to the
constantly changing ac current.
A V

a.c.
No net power is lost in a complete cycle, even though the capacitor does provide
non-resistive opposition (reactance) to the flow of ac current.

Capacitive reactance XC is affected by both the capacitance and the

frequency of the ac current.
CALCULATING CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
C Capacitive Reactance:
A 1
V XC  Unit is the 
2 fC
a.c. Ohm's law: VC  iX C

The voltage reading V in the above circuit at the instant the ac current is i
can be found from the inductance in F and the frequency in Hz.

ii
VVLL  Ohm’s law: VC = ieffXC
22 fLfL
 FREQUENCY AND AC CIRCUITS
Resistance R is constant and not affected by f.

11
Inductive reactance XL varies directly
with frequency as expected since E  X L  2 fL XXCC 
i/t. 22 fC
fC
R, X
XC XL

Capacitive reactance XC varies inversely with f

R
since rapid ac allows little time for charge to
build up on capacitors.

f
SERIES LRC CIRCUITS
VT Series ac circuit
A
a.c.
L R C

VL VR VC

Consider
Consideran inductorLL, ,aacapacitor
aninductor capacitorCC, ,and resistorRRall
andaaresistor all
connected
connectedininseries
serieswith
withan anac
acsource
source. .The
Theinstantaneous
instantaneouscurrent
current
and
andvoltages
voltagescan
canbebemeasured
measuredwithwithmeters.
meters.
PHASE IN A SERIES AC CIRCUIT
The voltage leads current in an inductor and lags current in a capacitor. In
phase for resistance R.

V V = Vmax sin 
VL
 1800 2700 3600

VR 450 900 1350

VC

Rotating phasor diagram generates voltage waves for each element R, L, and
C showing phase relations. Current i is always in phase with VR.
 PHASORS AND VOLTAGE
At time t = 0, suppose we read VL, VR and VC for an ac series circuit. What is the
source voltage VT?

Phasor Source voltage

Diagram VT
VL VL - VC

VR VR
VC

We handle phase differences by finding the vector sum of these readings.

VT = Vi. The angle  is the phase angle for the ac circuit.
CALCULATING TOTAL SOURCE VOLTAGE

Treating as vectors, we find:

Source voltage
VT
VL - VC VVTT  VVR2R2 ((VVLL VVCC))22

VR VVLL VVCC
tan 
tan
VVRR

Now recall that: VR = iR; VL = iXL; and VC = iVC

Substitution into the above voltage equation gives:

VVTT ii RR22 ((XXLL  XXCC))22

 IMPEDANCE IN AN AC CIRCUIT
Impedance
VVTT ii RR22 ((XXLL  XXCC))22
Z
XL - XC Impedance Z is defined:

R
ZZ  RR22 ((XXLL  XXCC))22

Ohm’s law for ac current and impedance: VVTT

VVTT iZ or ii 
iZ or
ZZ
The
The impedance
impedance isis the
the combined
combined opposition
opposition to
to ac
ac
current
current consisting
consisting ofof both
both resistance
resistance and
and reactance.
reactance.
 RESONANT FREQUENCY
Because
Becauseinductance
inductancecauses
causesthe
thevoltage
voltageto
tolead
leadthe
thecurrent
currentand
andcapacitance
capacitance
causes
causesititto
tolag
lagthe
thecurrent,
current,they
theytend
tendtotocancel
canceleach
eachother
otherout.
out.

Resonance (Maximum Power) occurs when XL

XL XL = XC = XC

R
XC ZZ  RR22 ((XXLL  XXCC))22  RR

Resonant fr XL = 1 11
XC 2 fL  ffrr 
2 fC 22 LCLC
POWER IN AN AC CIRCUIT
No
Nopower
powerisisconsumed
consumedbybyinductance
inductanceororcapacitance.
capacitance.Thus
Thuspower
powerisisaa
function
functionofofthe
thecomponent
componentof
ofthe
theimpedance
impedancealong
alongresistance:
resistance:

Impedance In terms of ac voltage:

Z
XL - XC PP == iV cos 
iV cos
 In terms of the resistance R:
R
P lost in R only
PP == ii22RR

The fraction Cos is known as the power factor.

 Effective current: iieffeff =
Effective current: 0.707 iimax
= 0.707 max

Effective voltage: VVeffeff =

Effective voltage: 0.707 VVmax
= 0.707 max

Inductive Reactance: Capacitive Reactance:

1
X L  2 fL Unit is the  XC  Unit is the 
SUMMARY 2 fC
Ohm's law: VL  iX L Ohm's law: VC  iX C
 VVLL VVCC
VVTT  VV ((VVLL VVCC))
22 22
tan 
tan
RR VVRR

XXLL XXCC
ZZ  RR ((XXLL  XXCC))
22 22
tan 
tan
RR

VVTT 11
VVTT iZ or ii 
iZ or ffrr 
SUMMARY (CONT.)ZZ 22 LCLC
 Power in AC Circuits:

In terms of ac voltage: In terms of the resistance R:

PP == iV cos 
iV cos PP == ii22RR

SUMMARY (CONT.)