ME6302 – MANUFACTURING

TECHNOLOGY – I

Dr. N. SENTHILKUMAR M.E, Ph.D., M.I.S.T.E.,

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ADHIPARASAKTHI ENGINEERING COLLEGE, MELMARUVATHUR.

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 UNIT V MANUFACTURE OF PLASTIC
COMPONENTS
Types and characteristics of plastics – Moulding of
thermoplastics – working principles and typical applications – injection
moulding – Plunger and screw machines – Compression moulding,
Transfer Moulding – Typical industrial applications – introduction to
blow moulding –Rotational moulding – Film blowing – Extrusion –
Thermoforming – Bonding of Thermoplastics

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 BOOKS REFERRED
1. Hajra Chouldhary S.K and Hajra Choudhury. AK., "Elements of workshop
Technology", volume I and II, Media promoters and Publishers Private Limited,
Mumbai, 1997
2. Kalpakjian. S, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”, Pearson Education
India Edition, 2006.
3. Paul Degarma E, Black J.T and Ronald A. Kosher, "Materials and Processes, in
Manufacturing" Eight Edition, Prentice – Hall of India, 1997.
4. Sharma, P.C., "A Text book of production Technology", S.Chand and Co. Ltd.,
2004.
5. Rao, P.N. "Manufacturing Technology Foundry, Forming and Welding",
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 POLYMERS INTRODUCTION

1. Polymers display a wide range of properties and have several

advantages over metallic materials, including low cost, good
performance, and ease of manufacturing; for these reasons, polymers
continue to be among the most commonly used materials.
2. A polymer is a compound consisting of long-chain molecules, each
molecule made up of repeating units connected together, may be
thousands, even millions of units in a single polymer molecule.
3. The word is derived from the Greek words poly (meaning many),
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and meros (reduced to mer), meaning part. Dr. NSK - APEC
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TP = Thermoplastics; TS = Thermoset; E = Elastomer 6

 TYPES OF POLYMER

1. Most polymers are based on carbon and are therefore considered

organic chemicals.
2. Polymers can be separated into plastics and rubbers.
3. Thermoplastic polymers, also called thermoplastics (TP), are solid
materials at room temperature, but they become viscous liquids when
heated to temperatures of only a few hundred degrees. This
characteristic allows them to be easily and economically shaped into
products. They can be subjected to this heating and cooling cycle
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repeatedly without significant degradation of the polymer. Dr. NSK - APEC
 TYPES OF POLYMERS

4. Thermosetting polymers, or thermosets (TS), cannot tolerate repeated

heating cycles as thermoplastics can. When heated, they soften and
flow for molding, but the elevated temperatures it produce a chemical
reaction that hardens the material into an infusible solid. If reheated,
thermosetting polymers degrade and char rather than soften.
5. Elastomers (E) are the rubbers, are polymers that exhibit extreme
elastic extensibility when subjected to relatively low mechanical
stress. Their properties are quite different from thermosets, but have a
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similar molecular structure different from thermoplastics. Dr. NSK - APEC
STRUCTURE
OF POLYMER
MOLECULES

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 POLYMERS - Advantages

1. Plastics can be formed by molding into intricate part geometries,

with no further processing required, compatible with net shape
processing.
2. Plastics possess an attractive list of properties for many engineering
applications where strength is not a factor:
1. Low density relative to metals and ceramics;
2. Good strength-to-weight ratios for certain (but not all) polymers;
3. High corrosion resistance; and
4. Low electrical and thermal conductivity. Dr. NSK - APEC
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 POLYMERS - Advantages

3. On a volumetric basis, polymers are cost-competitive with metals.

4. On a volumetric basis, polymers generally require less energy to
produce than metals.
5. Certain plastics are translucent and/or transparent, which makes them
competitive with glass in some applications.
6. Polymers are widely used in composite materials

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 POLYMERS - Limitations

1. Strength is low relative to metals and ceramics.

2. Modulus of elasticity or stiffness is also low in the case of elastomers,
of course, this may be a desirable characteristic.
3. Service temperatures are limited to only a few hundred degrees because
of the softening of thermoplastic polymers or degradation of
thermosetting polymers and elastomers.
4. Some polymers degrade when subjected to sunlight and other forms of
radiation.
5. Plastics exhibit viscoelastic properties, which can be a distinct limitation
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in load bearing applications. Dr. NSK - APEC
 POLYMERIZATION

1. Monomers can be linked into polymers in repeating units to make

longer and larger molecules by a chemical process called a
polymerization reaction.
2. Polymerization processes are complex. Although there are several
variations, two polymerization processes are important:
1. Condensation polymerization
2. Addition polymerization.

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 CONDENSATION
POLYMERIZATION
1. In condensation polymerization, polymers are produced by the
formation of bonds between two types of reacting mers.
2. A characteristic of this reaction is that reaction by-products (such as
water) are condensed out (hence the name).
3. This process is also known as step-growth or step-reaction
polymerization, because the polymer molecule grows step-by-step
until all of one reactant is consumed.

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(a) Condensation polymerization of nylon 6,6 and (b) addition
polymerization of polyethylene molecules from ethylene mers. Dr. NSK - APEC
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 ADDITION POLYMERIZATION

1. In addition polymerization (called chain-growth or chain-reaction

polymerization), bonding takes place without reaction by-products.
2. It is called “chain reaction” because of the high rate at which long
molecules form simultaneously, usually within a few seconds.
3. In addition polymerization, an initiator is added to open the double
bond between two carbon atoms, which begins the linking process by
adding many more monomers to a growing chain.
4. For example, ethylene monomers link to produce the polymer
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polyethylene. Dr. NSK - APEC
 POLYMERIZATION

1. Degree of Polymerization. It is convenient to express the size of a

polymer chain in terms of the degree of polymerization (DP), which
is defined as the ratio of the molecular weight of the polymer to the
molecular weight of the repeating unit. Dr. NSK - APEC

2. Bonding. During polymerization, the monomers are linked together

by covalent bonds, forming a polymer chain. Because of their
strength, covalent bonds also are called primary bonds. The polymer
chains are, in turn, held together by secondary bonds, such as van der
Waals bonds, hydrogen bonds, and ionic bonds which are weaker. 17
 POLYMER CHAINS
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1. Linear Polymers. The chainlike polymers are called linear polymers

because of their sequential structure, not necessarily straight in shape.
Linear polymers are polyamides (nylon 6,6) and polyvinyl fluoride.
2. Branched Polymers. The properties of a polymer depend not only on
the type of monomers, but also on their arrangement in the molecular
structure. In branched polymers, side-branch chains are attached to
the main chain during the synthesis of the polymer. Branching
interferes with the relative movement of the molecular chains,
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increasing their resistance to deformation and stress cracking.
POLYMER CHAINS

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 POLYMER CHAINS

3. Cross-linked Polymers. Generally three-dimensional in structure,

cross-linked polymers have adjacent chains linked by covalent
bonds. Polymers with a cross-linked structure are called thermosets
or thermosetting plastics; examples are epoxies, phenolics, and
silicones. Cross-linking has a major influence on the properties of
polymers (generally imparting hardness, strength, stiffness,
brittleness, and better dimensional stability; as well as in the
vulcanization of rubber.
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 POLYMER CHAINS

4. Network Polymers. These polymers consist of spatial (three-

dimensional) networks of three or more active covalent bonds. A
highly cross-linked polymer also is considered a network polymer.
Thermoplastic polymers that already have been formed or shaped
can be cross-linked to obtain higher strength by subjecting them to
high-energy radiation, such as ultraviolet light, X-rays, or electron
beams. However, excessive radiation can cause degradation of the
polymer.
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 POLYMER CHAINS

5. Copolymers and Terpolymers. If the repeating units in a polymer

chain are all of the same type, the molecule is called a homopolymer.
As with solid-solution metal alloys, two or three different types of
monomers can be combined to develop certain special properties and
characteristics, such as improved strength, toughness, and formability
of the polymer. Copolymers contain two types of polymers (styrene-
butadiene, which is used widely for automobile tires). Terpolymers
contain three types (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), which is
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used for helmets, telephones, and refrigerator liners). Dr. NSK - APEC
 THERMOPLASTICS

1. In polymers, the bonds between adjacent long chain molecules

(secondary bonds) are much weaker than the covalent bonds between
mers (primary bonds).
2. It is the strength of the secondary bonds that determines the overall
strength of the polymer; linear and branched polymers have weak
secondary bonds. Dr. NSK - APEC

3. As the temperature is raised above the glass-transition temperature,

Tg, (undergo a change in mechanical property) or melting point, Tm,
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certain polymers become easier to form or mold into desired shapes.
 THERMOPLASTICS

4. The increased temperature weakens the secondary bonds (through

thermal vibration of the long molecules), and the adjacent chains can
then move more easily when subjected to external shaping forces.
5. When the polymer is cooled, it returns to its original hardness and
strength; in other words, the process is reversible.
6. Polymers that exhibit this behavior are known as thermoplastics,
common examples of which are acrylics, cellulosics, nylons,
polyethylenes, and polyvinyl chloride.
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 THERMOPLASTICS – Mechanical
Properties
1. The typical thermoplastic at room temperature is characterized by the
following:
1. Much lower stiffness, the modulus of elasticity being two (in some
cases, three) orders of magnitude lower than metals and ceramics;
2. Lower tensile strength, about 10% of the metals;
3. Much lower hardness;
4. Greater ductility on average, but there is a tremendous range of
values, from 1% elongation for polystyrene to 500% or more for
polypropylene. 25
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 THERMOPLASTICS – Mechanical
Properties
2. Mechanical properties of thermoplastics depend on temperature.
3. Amorphous thermoplastics are rigid and glass-like below their glass
transition temperature Tg and flexible or rubber-like just above it.

4. As temperature increases above Tg, the polymer becomes increasingly

soft, finally becoming a viscous fluid (it never becomes a thin liquid
due to its high molecular weight).
5. Below Tg, the material is elastic and strong.

6. At Tg, a rather sudden drop in deformation resistance is observed as the

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THERMOPLASTICS

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 THERMOPLASTICS – Physical
Properties
1. In general, thermoplastic polymers have the following characteristics:
1. Lower densities than metals or ceramics, typical specific gravities for
polymers are around 1.2, for ceramics 2.5, and for metals 7.0
2. Much higher coefficient of thermal expansion roughly 5 times the value
for metals and 10 times the value for ceramics
3. Much lower melting temperatures
4. Specific heats that are 2 to 4 times those of metals and ceramics
5. Thermal conductivities that are about three orders of magnitude
6. Insulating electrical properties.
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COMMERCIAL THERMOPLASTICS -
Acetal
1. Acetal is the popular name given to polyoxymethylene, an
engineering polymer prepared from formaldehyde (CH2O) with high
stiffness, strength, toughness, and wear resistance.
2. In addition, it has a high melting point, low moisture absorption, and
is insoluble in common solvents at ambient temperatures.

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COMMERCIAL THERMOPLASTICS -
Acrylics
1. The acrylics are amorphous linear polymers derived from acrylic
acid (C3H4O2) and compounds originating from it.
2. The most important thermoplastic in the acrylics group is
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) or Plexiglas.
3. Its outstanding property is excellent transparency, which makes it
competitive with glass in optical applications.
4. Examples include automotive tail-light lenses, optical instruments,
and aircraft windows. Its limitation when compared with glass is a
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much lower scratch resistance. Dr. NSK - APEC
COMMERCIAL THERMOPLASTICS -
Acrylonitrile–Butadiene–Styrene
1. Acrylonitrile–Butadiene–Styrene (ABS) is called engineering plastic
due to its excellent combination of mechanical properties.
2. ABS is a two phase terpolymer, one phase being the hard copolymer
styrene–acrylonitrile, while the other phase is styrene-butadiene
copolymer that is rubbery.
3. The name of the plastic is derived from the three starting monomers,
which may be mixed in various proportions.
4. Typical applications include components for automotive, appliances,
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business machines; and pipes and fittings. Dr. NSK - APEC
COMMERCIAL THERMOPLASTICS -
Polytetrafluorethylene
1. Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE), commonly known as Teflon,
accounts for 85% of the family of polymers called fluoropolymers, in
which F atoms replace H atoms in the hydrocarbon chain.
2. PTFE is extremely resistant to chemical and environmental attack,
unaffected by water, good heat resistance, and very low coefficient
of friction.
3. It is used in nonstick household cookware. Other applications include
non-lubricating bearings and similar components, chemical
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equipment and food processing. Dr. NSK - APEC
COMMERCIAL THERMOPLASTICS -
Polyamides
1. An important polymer family that forms characteristic amide
linkages (CONH) during polymerization is the polyamides (PA).
2. The most important members of the PA family are nylons, which is
strong, highly elastic, tough, abrasion resistant, and self-lubricating.
3. It retains good mechanical properties at temperatures up to 125 °C,
but absorbs water with an accompanying degradation in properties.
4. A second group of polyamides is the aramids (aromatic polyamides)
of which Kevlar (fiber in reinforced plastics), having strength same
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as steel at 20% of the weight. Dr. NSK - APEC
COMMERCIAL THERMOPLASTICS -
Polyesters
1. Polyesters form a family of polymers made up of the characteristic
ester linkages (CO–O), can be either thermoplastic or thermosetting,
depending on whether cross-linking occurs.
2. Of the thermoplastic polyesters, a representative example is
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), either amorphous or partially
crystallized (up to 30%), depending on how it is cooled after shaping.
3. Fast cooling favors the amorphous state, which is highly transparent.
4. Applications include blow-molded beverage containers, photographic
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films, and magnetic recording tape. Dr. NSK - APEC
COMMERCIAL THERMOPLASTICS -
Polyethylene
1. Polyethylene (PE) is attractive as an engineering material due to low
cost, chemical inertness, and easy processing.
2. Polyethylene is available in several grades, the most common of
which are low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high density
polyethylene (HDPE).
3. The low-density grade is a highly branched polymer with lower
crystallinity and density.
4. Applications include squeezable bottles, frozen food bags, sheets,
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film, and wire insulation. Dr. NSK - APEC
 THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

1. When the long-chain molecules in a polymer are cross-linked in a

three-dimensional arrangement, the structure in effect becomes one
giant molecule with strong covalent bonds.
2. These polymers are called thermosetting polymers or thermosets,
because (during polymerization) the network is completed and the
shape of the part is permanently set.
3. This curing (cross-linking) reaction, unlike thermoplastics, is
irreversible.
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 THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

4. Some thermosets (such as epoxy, polyester, and urethane) cure at

room temperature, because the heat produced by the exothermic
reaction is sufficient to cure the plastic.
5. The polymerization process generally takes place in two stages.
6. The first occurs at the chemical plant, where the molecules are
partially polymerized into linear chains.
7. The second stage occurs during the final step of part production,
where cross-linking is completed under heat and pressure during the
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molding and shaping of the part. Dr. NSK - APEC
 THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

8. Thermosetting polymers do not have a sharply defined glass-

transition temperature.
9. Because of the nature of the bonds, the strength and hardness of a
thermoset (unlike those of thermoplastics) are not affected by
temperature or by rate of deformation.
10. If the temperature is increased sufficiently, the thermosetting
polymer instead begins to burn up, degrade, and char. Dr. NSK - APEC

11. It possess better mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties;

electrical resistance; and dimensional stability than thermoplastics.38
 THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

12. A typical and common thermoset is phenolic, which is a product of

the reaction between phenol and formaldehyde.
13. Common products made from this polymer are the handles and
knobs on cooking pots and pans and components of light switches
and outlets.

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 COMMERCIAL THERMOSETTING
PLASTICS – Amino Plastics
1. It is characterized by the amino group (NH2), consist of two
thermosetting polymers, urea-formaldehyde and melamine-
formaldehyde, which are produced by the reaction of formaldehyde
(CH2O) with either urea (CO(NH2)2) or melamine (C3H6N6),
respectively. Dr. NSK - APEC

2. Urea–formaldehyde is competitive with the phenols in certain

applications, particularly as a plywood and particle-board adhesive.
3. Melamine–formaldehyde plastic is water resistant and is used for
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 COMMERCIAL THERMOSETTING
PLASTICS – Epoxy Resins Dr. NSK - APEC

1. Epoxy resins are based on a chemical group called the epoxides, the
simplest formulation of epoxide is ethylene oxide (C2H3O).

2. Epichlorohydrin (C3H5OCl) is a widely used epoxide for producing

epoxy resins. Uncured, epoxides have low degree of polymerization.
3. To increase molecular weight and to cross-link the epoxide, a curing
agent must be used, that include polyamines and acid anhydrides.
4. Cured epoxies are noted for strength, adhesion, and heat and
chemical resistance. Applications include surface coatings, industrial
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 COMMERCIAL THERMOSETTING
PLASTICS – Phenol Dr. NSK - APEC

1. Phenol (C6H5OH) is an acidic compound that can be reacted with

aldehydes (dehydrogenated alcohols), formaldehyde (CH2O) being

the most reactive.
2. Phenol-formaldehyde is the most important of the phenolic polymers
always combined with fillers such as wood flour, cellulose fibers,
and minerals when used as a molding material.
3. It is brittle, possesses good thermal, chemical, and dimensional
stability. Applications include adhesives for plywood, printed circuit
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 COMMERCIAL THERMOSETTING
PLASTICS – Silicones Dr. NSK - APEC

1. Silicones are inorganic and semi-inorganic polymers, distinguished

by the presence of the repeating siloxane link (–Si–O–) in their
molecular structure.
2. A typical formulation combines the methyl radical (CH 3) with (SiO)

in various proportions to obtain the repeating unit ((CH3)m–SiO),

where m establishes the proportionality.
3. Polysiloxanes can be produced in three forms: (1) fluids, (2)
elastomers, and (3) thermosetting resins.
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 INJECTION MOULDING

1. Injection molding is a process in which a polymer is heated to a

highly plastic state and forced to flow under high pressure into a
mold cavity, where it solidifies.
2. The molded part, called a molding, is then removed from the cavity.
3. The process produces discrete components that are almost always net
shape. The production cycle time is typically in the range of 10 to 30
sec, although cycles of 1 min or longer are not uncommon for large
parts.
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 INJECTION MOULDING

4. Complex and intricate shapes are possible with injection molding.

5. An injection molding machine consists of two principal components:
(1) the plastic injection unit and (2) the mold clamping unit.
6. The injection unit is much like an extruder, consists of a barrel that is
fed from one end by a hopper containing a supply of plastic pellets.
7. Inside the barrel is a screw whose operation surpasses that of an
extruder screw in the following respect: in addition to turning for
mixing and heating the polymer, it also acts as a ram that rapidly
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moves forward to inject molten plastic into the mold. Dr. NSK - APEC
INJECTION MOULDING

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 INJECTION MOULDING

8. A non-return valve mounted near the tip of the screw prevents the
melt from flowing backward along the screw threads.
9. The clamping unit is concerned with the operation of the mold.
10. Its functions are:
1. To hold the two halves of mold in proper alignment with each other
2. To keep the mold closed during injection by applying a clamping
force sufficient to resist the injection force
3. Open and close the mold at the appropriate times in the molding
cycle. Dr. NSK - APEC
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 INJECTION MOULDING

11. The clamping unit consists of two platens, a fixed platen and a
moveable platen, and a mechanism for translating the latter.
12. The cycle for injection molding proceeds in the following sequence:
1. The mold is closed and clamped.
2. A shot of melt, at right temperature and viscosity by heating is
injected under high pressure into the mold cavity.
3. The screw is rotated and retracted to permit fresh polymer to flow
into the forward portion of the barrel.
4. The mold is opened, and the part is ejected and removed.
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Typical molding cycle: (1) mold is closed, (2) melt is injected into
cavity, (3) screw is retracted, and (4) mold opens, and part is ejected.
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 INJECTION MOULDING – Defects

1. Shrinkage – Polymers have high thermal expansion coefficients, and

significant shrinkage can occur during cooling of the plastic in the
mold. Contraction of crystalline plastics tends to be greater than for
amorphous polymers. Shrinkage is usually expressed as the reduction
in linear size that occurs during cooling to room temperature from
the molding temperature for the given polymer.
2. Short shots – As in casting, a short shot is a molding that has
solidified before completely filling the cavity. The defect can be
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corrected by increasing temperature and/or pressure. Dr. NSK - APEC
 INJECTION MOULDING – Defects
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3. Flashing – It occurs when the polymer melt is squeezed into the

parting surface between mold plates; it can also occur around
ejection pins. The defect is usually caused by (1) vents and
clearances in the mold that are too large; (2) injection pressure too
high compared with clamping force; (3) melt temperature too high;
or (4) excessive shot size.
4. Weld lines – It occurs when polymer melt flows around a core or
other convex detail in the mold cavity and meets from opposite
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directions; the boundary thus formed is called a weld line
 INJECTION MOULDING – Defects

5. Sink marks and voids – These are defects usually related to thick
molded sections. A sink mark occurs when the outer surface on the
molding solidifies, but contraction of the internal material causes the
skin to be depressed below its intended profile. A void is caused by
the same basic phenomenon; however, the surface material retains its
form and the shrinkage manifests itself as an internal void because of
high tensile stresses on the still-molten polymer.

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 SCREW MACHINES

1. The reciprocating screw machine is the most common.

2. This design uses the same barrel for melting and injection of plastic.
3. The alternative unit involves the use of separate barrels for
plasticizing and injecting the polymer.
4. This type is called a screw-pre plasticizer machine or two-stage
machine.

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 SCREW MACHINES

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 PLUNGER MACHINES

1. Plastic pellets are fed from a hopper into the first stage, which uses a
screw to drive the polymer forward and melt it.
2. This barrel feeds a second barrel, which uses a plunger to inject the
melt into the mold.
3. Older machines used one plunger-driven barrel to melt and inject the
plastic.
4. These machines are referred to as plunger-type injection molding
machines
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PLUNGER MACHINES

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 COMPRESSION MOULDING

1. It is old and widely used molding process for thermosetting plastics.

2. The process, consists of :
1. Loading a precise amount of molding compound, called the charge, into
the bottom half of a heated mold
2. Bringing the mold halves together to compress the charge, forcing it to
flow and conform to the shape of the cavity
3. Heating the charge by means of the hot mold to polymerize and cure the
material into a solidified part
4. Opening the mold halves and removing the part from the cavity.
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 COMPRESSION MOULDING

(1) charge is loaded; (2) and (3) charge is compressed and cured; and (4) part is
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ejected and removed (some details omitted). Dr. NSK - APEC
 COMPRESSION MOULDING

3. The initial charge of molding compound can be any of several forms,

including powders or pellets, liquid, or preform.
4. The amount of polymer must be precisely controlled to obtain
repeatable consistency in the molded product.
5. It has become common practice to preheat the charge before its
placement into the mold; this softens the polymer and shortens the
production cycle time.
6. Preheating methods include infrared heaters, convection heating in
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an oven, and use of a heated rotating screw in a barrel. Dr. NSK - APEC
 COMPRESSION MOULDING

7. The latter technique (borrowed from injection molding) is also used

to meter the amount of the charge.
8. Compression molding presses are oriented vertically and contain two
platens to which the mold halves are fastened.
9. The presses involve either of two types of actuation: (1) upstroke of
the bottom platen or (2) down stroke of the top platen, the former
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being the more common machine configuration.
10. They are generally powered by a hydraulic cylinder that can be
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designed to provide clamping capacities up to several hundred tons.
 COMPRESSION MOULDING

11. Compression molds can be classified as hand molds, used for trial
runs; semiautomatic, in which the press follows a programmed cycle
but the operator manually loads and unloads the press; and
automatic, which operate under a fully automatic press cycle
(including automatic loading and unloading).
12. Materials for compression molding include phenolics, melamine,
urea-formaldehyde, epoxies, urethanes, and elastomers.
13. Typical moldings include electric plugs and sockets, pot handles, and
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dinnerware plates. Dr. NSK - APEC
 COMPRESSION MOULDING

14. Advantages of compression molding in these applications include

1. Molds that are simpler and less expensive
2. Less scrap
3. Low residual stresses in the molded parts.
15. A typical disadvantage is
1. Longer cycle times
2. And therefore lower production rates than injection molding.

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 TRANSFER MOULDING

1. In this process, a thermosetting charge is loaded into a chamber

immediately ahead of the mold cavity, where it is heated; pressure is
then applied to force the softened polymer to flow into the heated
mold where curing occurs.
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2. There are two variants of the process,

1. Pot transfer molding, in which the charge is injected from a ‘‘pot’’
through a vertical sprue channel into the cavity
2. Plunger transfer molding, in which the charge is injected by means of a
plunger from a heated well through lateral channels into mold cavity.63
 POT TRANSFER MOULDING

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(1) Charge is loaded into pot, (2) softened polymer is pressed into mold
cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected. 64
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 PLUNGER TRANSFER
MOULDING

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(1) Charge is loaded into pot, (2) softened polymer is pressed into mold
cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected. 65
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 TRANSFER MOULDING

3. In both cases, scrap is produced each cycle in the form of the leftover
material in the base of the well and lateral channels, called the cull.
4. In addition, the sprue in pot transfer is scrap material.
5. Because the polymers are thermosetting, the scrap cannot be
recovered.
6. Transfer molding is closely related to compression molding, because
it is used on the same polymer types (thermosets and elastomers).
7. It is similar to injection molding, in the way the charge is preheated
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in a separate chamber and then injected into the mold. Dr. NSK - APEC
 TRANSFER MOULDING

8. Transfer molding is capable of molding part shapes that are more

intricate than compression molding but not as intricate as injection
molding.
9. Transfer molding also lends itself to molding with inserts, in which a
metal or ceramic insert is placed into the cavity before injection, and
the heated plastic bonds to the insert during molding.

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 BLOW MOULDING

1. Blow molding is a molding process in which air pressure is used to

inflate soft plastic inside a mold cavity.
2. It is an important industrial process for making one-piece hollow
plastic parts with thin walls, such as bottles and similar containers.
3. Many of these items are used for consumer beverages for mass
markets, production is typically organized for very high quantities.
4. The technology is borrowed from the glass industry with which
plastics compete in the disposable and recyclable bottle market.
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 BLOW MOULDING

5. Blow molding is accomplished in two steps:

1. Fabrication of a starting tube of molten plastic, called a parison
(same as in glass-blowing)
2. Inflation of the tube to the desired final shape.
6. Forming the parison is accomplished by either extrusion or injection
molding.
7. Types of blow molding are
1. Extrusion blow molding
2. Injection blow molding Dr. NSK - APEC
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 EXTRUSION BLOW MOULDING

1. In extrusion blow molding, the process is organized as a very high

production operation for making plastic bottles.
2. The sequence is automated and often integrated with downstream
operations such as bottle filling and labeling.
3. It is usually a requirement that the blown container be rigid, and
rigidity depends on wall thickness among other factors.
4. We can relate wall thickness of the blown container to the starting
extruded parison, assuming a cylindrical shape for the final product.
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 EXTRUSION BLOW MOULDING

(1) extrusion of parison; (2) parison is pinched at the top and sealed at the
bottom around a metal blow pin as the two halves of the mold come together;
(3) the tube is inflated so that it takes the shape of the mold cavity; and (4)
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mold is opened to remove the solidified part Dr. NSK - APEC
 INJECTION BLOW MOULDING

1. In this process, the starting parison is injection molded rather than

extruded.
2. Compared to its extrusion-based competitor, injection blow molding
usually has the following advantages:
1. Higher production rate
2. Greater accuracy in the final dimensions
3. Lower scrap rates
4. Less wasteful of material.
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Dr. NSK - APEC
 INJECTION BLOW MOULDING

(1) parison is injected molded around a blowing rod; (2) injection mold is
opened and parison is transferred to a blow mold; (3) soft polymer is inflated to
conform to the blow mold; and (4) blow mold is opened, and blown product is
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removed. Dr. NSK - APEC
 INJECTION BLOW MOULDING

3. On the other hand, larger containers can be produced with extrusion

blow molding because the mold in injection molding is so expensive
for large parisons.
4. Also, extrusion blow molding is technically more feasible and
economical for double-layer bottles used for storing certain
medicines, personal care products, and various chemical compounds.
5. In a variation of injection blow molding, called stretch blow
molding, the blowing rod extends downward into the injection
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molded parison during step 2. Dr. NSK - APEC
 STRETCH BLOW MOULDING

6. In a variation of injection blow molding, called stretch blow molding, the

blowing rod extends downward into the injection molded parison during
step 2. (1) injection molding of parison, (2) stretching, and (3) blowing

Dr. NSK - APEC 75

Dr. NSK - APEC
 STRETCH BLOW MOULDING

7. It stretches the soft plastic and creates a more favorable stressing of

the polymer than conventional injection blow molding or extrusion
blow molding.
8. The resulting structure is more rigid, with higher transparency and
better impact resistance.
9. The widely used material for stretch blow molding is polyethylene
terephthalate (PET), a polyester that has very low permeability and is
strengthened by the stretch-blow-molding process, making it ideal as
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a container for carbonated beverages. Dr. NSK - APEC
 ROTATIONAL MOULDING

1. Rotational molding uses gravity inside a rotating mold to achieve a

hollow form.
2. Also called rotomolding, it is an alternative to blow molding for
making large, hollow shapes.
3. It is used principally for thermoplastic polymers, but applications for
thermosets and elastomers are becoming more common.
4. Rotomolding tends to favor more complex external geometries,
larger parts, and lower production quantities than blow molding.
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ROTATIONAL MOULDING Dr. NSK - APEC
78
 ROTATIONAL MOULDING

5. The process consists of the following steps:

1. A predetermined amount of polymer powder is loaded into the cavity
of a split mold
2. The mold is then heated and simultaneously rotated on two
perpendicular axes, so that the powder impinges on all internal
surfaces of the mold, forming a fused layer of uniform thickness
3. While still rotating, the mold is cooled so that the plastic skin
solidifies
4. The mold is opened, and the part is unloaded. 79
Dr. NSK - APEC
 ROTATIONAL MOULDING

6. Rotational speeds used in the process are relatively slow.

7. It is gravity, not centrifugal force, that causes uniform coating of the
mold surfaces.
8. Molds in rotational molding are simple and inexpensive compared
with injection molding or blow molding, but the production cycle is
much longer, lasting perhaps 10 min or more.
9. To balance these advantages and disadvantages in production,
rotational molding is often performed on a multi-cavity indexing
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machine, such as the three-station machine. Dr. NSK - APEC
 ROTATIONAL MOULDING

10. The machine is designed so that three molds are indexed in sequence
through three workstations.
11. Thus, all three molds are working simultaneously.
12. The first workstation is an unload–load station in which the finished
part is unloaded from the mold, and the powder for the next part is
loaded into the cavity.
13. The second station consists of a heating chamber where hot-air
convection heats the mold while it is simultaneously rotated.
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 ROTATIONAL MOULDING

14. Temperatures inside the chamber are around 375 °C, depending on
the polymer and the item being molded.
15. The third station cools the mold, using forced cold air or water spray,
to cool and solidify the plastic molding inside.
16. It can produce hollow toys such as hobby horses and playing balls;
boat and canoe hulls, small swimming pools; and other flotation
devices; truck body parts, automotive dashboards, fuel tanks;
luggage pieces, furniture, garbage cans; large industrial barrels,
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containers, and storage tanks; portable outhouses, and septic tanks.
Dr. NSK - APEC
 FILM BLOWING

1. Film blowing is also known as Blown-Film Extrusion Process.

2. This is the other widely used process for making thin polyethylene
film for packaging.
3. It is a complex process, combining extrusion and blowing to produce
a tube of thin film.
4. The process begins with the extrusion of a tube that is immediately
drawn upward while still molten and simultaneously expanded in
size by air inflated into it through the die mandrel.
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 FILM
BLOWING

Dr. NSK - APEC

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Dr. NSK - APEC
 FILM BLOWING

5. A ‘‘frost line’’ marks the position along the upward moving bubble
where solidification of the polymer occurs.
6. Air pressure in the bubble must be kept constant to maintain uniform
film thickness and tube diameter.
7. The air is contained in the tube by pinch rolls that squeeze the tube
back together after it has cooled.
8. Guide rolls and collapsing rolls are also used to restrain the blown
tube and direct it into the pinch rolls.
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9. The flat tube is then collected onto a windup reel. Dr. NSK - APEC
 FILM BLOWING

10. The effect of air inflation is to stretch the film in both directions as it
cools from the molten state.
11. This results in isotropic strength properties, which is an advantage
over other processes in which the material is stretched primarily in
one direction.
12. Other advantages include the ease with which extrusion rate and air
pressure can be changed to control stock width and gage.

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Dr. NSK - APEC
 FILM BLOWING

13. It produces stronger film (so that a thinner film can be used to
package a product), but thickness control and production rates are
lower.
14. The final blown film can be left in tubular form (e.g., for garbage
bags), or it can be subsequently cut at the edges to provide two
parallel thin films.

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 THERMOFORMING

1. Thermoforming is a process in which a flat thermoplastic sheet is

heated and deformed into the desired shape.
2. The process is widely used in packaging of consumer products and
fabricating large items such as bathtubs, contoured skylights, and
internal door liners for refrigerators.
3. Thermoforming consists of two main steps: heating and forming.
4. Heating is usually accomplished by radiant electric heaters, located
on one or both sides of the starting plastic sheet at a distance of
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roughly125mm. Dr. NSK - APEC
 THERMOFORMING

5. Duration of the heating cycle needed to sufficiently soften the sheet

depends on the polymer, its thickness and color.
6. Methods by which forming is accomplished can be classified into
three basic categories:
1. Vacuum thermoforming
2. Pressure thermoforming
3. Mechanical thermoforming.

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Dr. NSK - APEC
 VACUUM THERMOFORMING

1. This was the first thermoforming process (vacuum forming), which

is the most basic form.
2. Negative pressure is used to draw a preheated sheet into a mold
cavity.
3. The holes for drawing the vacuum in the mold are on the order of 0.8
mm in diameter, so their effect on the plastic surface is minor.

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VACUUM THERMOFORMING

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 PRESSURE THERMOFORMING

1. An alternative to vacuum forming involves positive pressure to force

the heated plastic into the mold cavity.
2. This is called pressure thermoforming or blow forming.
3. Its advantage over vacuum forming is that higher pressures can be
developed because the latter is limited to a theoretical maximum of 1
atm.
Dr. NSK - APEC
4. Blow-forming pressures of 3 to 4 atm are common.
5. The process sequence is similar to the previous, the difference being
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that the sheet is pressurized from above into the mold cavity.
 PRESSURE THERMOFORMING

Negative Mold

(2) sheet is placed over a mold cavity; and (3) positive pressure forces the sheet
into the cavity. 93
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 PRESSURE THERMOFORMING

6. Vent holes are provided in the mold to exhaust the trapped air.
7. At this point it is useful to distinguish between negative and positive
molds.
8. The negative molds have concave and a positive mold has a convex
shape. Both types are used in thermoforming.
9. In the case of the positive mold, the heated sheet is draped over the
convex form and negative or positive pressure is used to force the
plastic against the mold surface.
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Dr. NSK - APEC
 PRESSURE THERMOFORMING

10. Vent holes are provided in the mold to exhaust the trapped air.
11. At this point it is useful to distinguish between negative and positive
molds.
12. The negative molds have concave and a positive mold has a convex
shape. Both types are used in thermoforming.
13. In the case of the positive mold, the heated sheet is draped over the
convex form and negative or positive pressure is used to force the
plastic against the mold surface.
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Dr. NSK - APEC
 PRESSURE THERMOFORMING

Positive Mold

(1) The heated plastic sheet is positioned above the convex mold.

(2) The clamp is lowered into position, draping the sheet over the mold as a
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vacuum forces the sheet against the mold surface. Dr. NSK - APEC
 PRESSURE THERMOFORMING

14. If the part is drawn into the negative mold, then its exterior surface
will have the exact surface contour of the mold cavity.
15. The inside surface will be an approximation of the contour and will
possess a finish corresponding to that of the starting sheet.
16. By contrast, if the sheet is draped over a positive mold, then its
interior surface will be identical to that of the convex mold; and its
outside surface will follow approximately.
17. Depending on the requirements of the product, this distinction might
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be important. Dr. NSK - APEC
 MECHANICAL
THERMOFORMING
1. Mechanical thermoforming, uses matching positive and negative
molds that are brought together against the heated plastic sheet,
forcing it to assume their shape.
2. In pure mechanical forming, air pressure is not used at all.
3. Its advantages are better dimensional control and the opportunity for
surface detailing on both sides of the part.
4. The disadvantage is that two mold halves are required; therefore, the
molds for the other two methods are less costly.
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Dr. NSK - APEC
 MECHANICAL
THERMOFORMING
(1) heated sheet placed above a negative mold, and (2) mold is closed to shape
the sheet.

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Dr. NSK - APEC Dr. NSK - APEC
 APPLICATIONS OF
THERMOFORMING
1. Thermoforming is a secondary shaping process, the primary process
being that which produces the sheet or film.
2. Only thermoplastics can be thermoformed because extruded sheets of
thermosetting or elastomeric polymers have already been cross-
linked and cannot be softened by reheating.
3. Mass production thermoforming operations are performed in the
packaging industry.
4. They offer an attractive way to display certain commodity products
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such as cosmetics, toiletries, small tools, and fasteners. Dr. NSK - APEC
 BONDING OF THERMOPLASTICS –
Thermal Method
1. Thermoplastics can be joined by thermal means, adhesive bonding,
solvent bonding, and mechanical fastening.
2. Thermoplastics soften and melt as the temperature is increased, and
can be joined when heat is generated at the interface (from either an
external or internal source), allowing fusion to take place.
3. The heat softens the thermoplastic at the interface to a viscous or
molten state and ensures a good bond with the application of
pressure.
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Dr. NSK - APEC
 BONDING OF THERMOPLASTICS –
Thermal Method
4. Because of the low thermal conductivity of thermoplastics, the heat
source may burn or char the surfaces of the components if applied at
too high a rate.
5. Such burning or charting can cause difficulties in obtaining
sufficiently deep fusion for proper joint strength.
6. Oxidation also can be a problem in joining some polymers (such as
polyethylene), because it causes degradation.
7. Typically, an inert shielding gas (such as nitrogen) is used to prevent
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oxidation. Dr. NSK - APEC
 THERMAL METHOD – External
Heat Source
1. External heat sources may be chosen from among the following (the
choice depends on the compatibility of the polymers to be joined):
2. Hot air; inert gases, or a filler material of the same type is also used.
3. In a process known as Hot-tool welding or Hot-plate welding, heated
tools and dies are pressed against the surfaces to be joined and heat
them by the interdiffusion of molecular chains. This process
commonly is used in butt-welded pipes and (end-to-end) tubing.
4. Infrared radiation (from high-intensity quartz heat lamps) is focused
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into a narrow beam onto the surface to be joined. Dr. NSK - APEC
 THERMAL METHOD – External
Heat Source
5. Radio waves are particularly useful for thin films; frequencies are in the
range from 100 to 500 Hz.
6. Dielectric heating at frequencies up to 100 MHZ are effective for the
through heating of polymers nylon, PVC, polyurethane, and rubber.
7. Electrical-resistance elements are placed at the interface to create heat
by the passing of electrical current-a process known as resistive-implant
welding. Alternatively, in induction welding, these elements at the
interface may be subjected to radiofrequency exposure.
8. Lasers emitting defocused beams at low power prevent degradation of
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the polymer. Dr. NSK - APEC
 THERMAL METHOD – Internal
Heat Source
1. Ultrasonic welding is the most commonly used process for
thermoplastics, particularly ABS and high-impact polystyrene. Due to
the high hysteresis of polymers in a loading cycle, the heat for welding
is developed in the polymer and not at the interface.
2. Friction welding (also called spin welding for polymers) and linear
friction welding (also called vibration welding) are particularly useful
for joining polymers with a high degree of crystallinity, such as acetal,
polyethylene, nylons, and polypropylene.
3. Orbital welding is similar to friction welding, except that the rotary
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motion of one component is in an orbital path. Dr. NSK - APEC
 BONDING OF THERMOPLASTICS –
Adhesive Bonding
1. This method is for joining sections of PVC pipe (used in plumbing
systems) and ABS pipe (used in drain, waste, and vent systems).
2. A primer that improves adhesion is used to apply the adhesive to the
connecting sleeve and pipe surfaces and the pieces are pushed together.
3. Adhesive bonding of polyethylene, polypropylene, and
polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) can be difficult, because adhesives do
not bond readily to them.
4. The surfaces of parts made of these materials usually have to be treated
chemically to improve bonding. The use of adhesive primers or double-
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sided adhesive tapes also is effective. Dr. NSK - APEC
 BONDING OF THERMOPLASTICS –
Mechanical Fastening
1. This method is particularly effective for most thermoplastics (because of
their inherent toughness and resilience) and for joining plastics to
metals. Plastic or metal screws may be used.
2. The use of self-tapping metal screws is a common practice. Integrated
snap fasteners have gained wide acceptance for simplifying assembly
operations.
3. Because the fastener can be molded directly at the same time as the
plastic, it adds very little to the cost of the assembly.
4. This technique is very cost effective, because it reduces assembly time
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and minimizes the number of parts required. Dr. NSK - APEC
 BONDING OF THERMOPLASTICS –
Solvent Bonding & Electromagnetic Bonding
1. Solvent bonding method consists of the following sequence of steps:
1. Roughening the surfaces with an abrasive;
2. Wiping and cleaning the surfaces with a solvent appropriate for the
particular polymer;
3. Pressing the surfaces together and holding them together until
sufficient joint strength is developed.
2. In Electromagnetic bonding, thermoplastics are joined by magnetic
means by embedding tiny particles in the polymer. A high-frequency
field then causes induction heating of the polymer and melts it at the
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interfaces to be joined. Dr. NSK - APEC
 BONDING OF THERMOSETTING
PLASTICS
1. Thermosetting plastics (such as epoxy and phenolics) can be joined
by the following techniques:
1. Threaded or other molded-in inserts.
2. Mechanical fasteners, particularly those using self-tapping screws
and integrated snap fasteners.
3. Solvent bonding.
4. Co-curing, in which the two components to be joined are placed
together and cured simultaneously.
5. Adhesive bonding. 109
Dr. NSK - APEC
THANK YOU

Dr. NSK - APEC 110