STRENGTH OF

MATERIALS
Tosh Suthar
1NT22AE105
B2 Batch

Under The Guidance of : VRINDA BANSAL MAM

• Strength of Materials

Definition : The field of strength of materials (also called mechanics of materials) typically refers to various
methods of calculating the stresses and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts.
Types of loadings

 Transverse loadings – Forces applied perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a member.

 Transverse loading causes the member to bend and deflect from its original position, with internal tensile and
compressive strains accompanying the change in curvature of the member.
 Transverse loading also induces shear forces that cause shear deformation of the material and increase the
transverse deflection of the member.
 Axial loading – The applied forces are collinear with the longitudinal axis of the member. The forces cause
the member to either stretch or shorten.

 Torsional loading – Twisting action caused by a pair of externally applied equal and oppositely directed
force couples acting on parallel planes or by a single external couple applied to a member that has one end
fixed against rotation.
 • Stress terms

 Uniaxial stress is expressed by

Uniaxial stress is expressed by

• Uniaxial stress is expressewhere F is the force [N] acting

on an area A [m2].
 Compressive stress (or compression) is the stress state caused by an applied load that acts to reduce the
length of the material (compression member) along the axis of the applied load, it is, in other words, a stress
state that causes a squeezing of the material.
 A simple case of compression is the uniaxial compression induced by the action of opposite, pushing forces.
Compressive strength for materials is generally higher than their tensile strength.
 However, structures loaded in compression are subject to additional failure modes, such as buckling, that are
dependent on the member’s geometry.
 Tensile stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to elongate the material along the axis of
the applied load, in other words, the stress caused by pulling the material.
 The strength of structures of equal cross-sectional area loaded in tension is independent of shape of the
cross-section. Materials loaded in tension are susceptible to stress concentrations such as material defects or
abrupt changes in geometry.
 However, materials exhibiting ductile behaviour (most metals for example) can tolerate some defects while
brittle materials (such as ceramics) can fail well below their ultimate material strength.
 Shear stress is the stress state caused by the combined energy of a pair of opposing forces acting along
parallel lines of action through the material, in other words, the stress caused by faces of the material sliding
relative to one another.
 An example is cutting paper with scissors or stresses due to torsional loading.
Stress parameters for resistance

 Material resistance can be expressed in several mechanical stress parameters. The term material strength is
used when referring to mechanical stress parameters.
 These are physical quantities with dimension homogeneous to pressure and force per unit surface.
 The traditional measure unit for strength are therefore Mpa in the International System of Units, and the psi
between the United States customary units.
 Strength parameters include: yield strength, tensile strength, fatigue strength, crack resistance, and other
parameters.
 Yield strength is the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation in a material. In some materials,
like aluminium alloys, the point of yielding is difficult to identify, thus it is usually defined as the stress
required to cause 0.2% plastic strain. This is called a 0.2% proof stress
 Compressive strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to failure in a material in the manner of
ductile failure (infinite theoretical yield) or brittle failure (rupture as the result of crack propagation, or
sliding along a weak plane – see shear strength).
 Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to tensile failure in the
manner of ductile failure (yield as the first stage of that failure, some hardening in the second stage and
breakage after a possible “neck” formation) or brittle failure (sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a
low-stress state).
 The tensile strength can be quoted as either true stress or engineering stress, but engineering stress is the
most commonly used.
 Fatigue strength is a more complex measure of the strength of a material that considers several loading
episodes in the service period of an object,[6] and is usually more difficult to assess than the static strength
measures.
 In the case of cyclic loading it can be appropriately expressed as an amplitude usually at zero mean stress,
along with the number of cycles to failure under that condition of stress.
 Impact strength is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load and is expressed in
terms of energy.
 Often measured with the Izod impact strength test or Charpy impact test, both of which measure the impact
energy required to fracture a sample. Volume, modulus of elasticity, distribution of forces, and yield strength
affect the impact strength of a material.
 In order for a material or object to have a high impact strength, the stresses must be distributed evenly
throughout the object.
 It also must have a large volume with a low modulus of elasticity and a high material yield strength.
Strain parameters for resistance

 Deformation of the material is the change in geometry created when stress is applied ( as a result of applied
forces, gravitational fields, accelerations, thermal expansion, etc.). Deformation is expressed by the
displacement field of the material
 Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that expresses the trend of the deformation change
among the material field.
 Strain is the deformation per unit length. In the case of uniaxial loading the displacement of a specimen (for
example a bar element) lead to a calculation of strain expressed as the quotient of the displacement and the
original length of the specimen.
 For 3D displacement fields it is expressed as derivatives of displacement functions in terms of a second
order tensor (with 6 independent elements).
 Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element is displaced when subject to an
applied load.
Stress–strain relations

 Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous shape

after stress is released. In many materials, the relation between
applied stress is directly proportional to the resulting strain (up to a
certain limit), and a graph representing those two quantities is a
straight line.
 The slope of this line is known as Young’s modulus, or the “modulus
of elasticity”.
 The modulus of elasticity can be used to determine the stress–strain
relationship in the linear-elastic portion of the stress–strain curve.
 The linear-elastic region is either below the yield point, or if a yield
point is not easily identified on the stress–strain plot it is defined to be
between 0 and 0.2% strain, and is defined as the region of strain in
which no yielding (permanent deformation) occurs.
 Plasticity or plastic deformation is the opposite of elastic deformation and is defined as unrecoverable strain.
Plastic deformation is retained after the release of the applied stress.
 Most materials in the linear-elastic category are usually capable of plastic deformation.
 Brittle materials, like ceramics, do not experience any plastic deformation and will fracture under relatively
low strain, while ductile materials such as metallics, lead, or polymers will plastically deform much more
before a fracture initiation.
 Consider the difference between a carrot and chewed bubble gum. The carrot will stretch very little before
breaking.
 The chewed bubble gum, on the other hand, will plastically deform enormously before finally breaking.