Knowledge of Materials

Prepared By Raw Material Team

Yarn Specialist
Albert Law
  Textile fiber is an individual, fine, hair-like substance, which
forms the fundamental element of textile yarn and fabric.
Classification of  Fibers are either found in nature or made by man. Natural
textile fibers fibers are obtained from plants, animals and minerals, while
man-made fibers are produced either purely chemically
(Synthetic fibers) or by modifying natural fibers by chemical
means, called Regenerated fibers.
Classification of  2 main groups of fibers: natural fiber and man-made fiber
textile fibers  Natural fiber: Cellulose/ Protein/ Mineral
 Man-made fiber: Regenerated/ Synthetic
Classification of
textile fibers
  Animal fiber come from the fleece/hair of animals or the
cocoon of silk worm.
Natural Fibers -Wool come from the fleece of sheep
-Silk come from the cocoon of silk worm and this is the only
Filament in natural fiber.
  Vegetable fibers come from difference parts of plant
-Cotton/ Kapok come from the seed.
Natural fibers
-Linen/ Hemp/ Ramie come from the bast.
  Regeneration fiber: by adding chemical treatment to natural
materials e.g. Rayon, Acetate.
Man-Made fiber
 Synthetic fiber: purely made by chemical solution e.g. Nylon,
Polyester.
Time chart for fiber  4000BC 3000BC 2600BC 2000BC 1939 1992 2001
usage
Wool Cotton Silk Linen Polyester Tencel Bamboo
  Since most single fibers are so small that they cannot be
examined adequately with eye, the physical appearance of
Properties of fiber these fibers is best observed under a microscope.
Physical properties  With a microscope, it is possible to observe the properties such
as: Color, Shape, Crimp, Length and Diameter.
  The color of natural fibers varies.
-e.g. Linen, the color yellow or off-white.

Physical properties -e.g. Wool, range from white to black.

1.Color

If their color interferes with dyeing or printing, the color may be

removed by bleaching.
  Some fibers have smooth, contours when examined
longitudinally; others are rough and uneven. The shape of a
fiber can determine the bulk, texture, luster and hand feel of the
fibers.
-Wool: cover with many small scales
Physical properties -Cotton: twisted
2.Shape
-Silk: smooth
There are two ways to see the shape of a fiber:
1. Cross-sectional form
2. Longitudinal form
  Cross sections vary from fiber to fiber, ranging from circular to
oval, triangular, dog-bone-shaped, U shaped, trilobal to multi-
lobal and hollow.
Physical properties -Cotton: peanut-shaped
3.Cross sections
-Silk: irregular triangular shaped
  The length of the fiber is one basis for division or
classification.
 Staple fibers: short fiber, can be measured in centimeters or
inches
Physical properties
 Filament: long fiber, can be measured in meters or yards
4.Length
 All natural fibers except silk are staple fibers
 Man-made fibers are usually extruded in filament form, but the
filament can be cut into staple length.
  The length of the fiber affect the appearance of the yarns.
Filament can be made into yarns with little or no twisting.
Appearance is smooth and lustrous. Staple fibers must be
twisted together into a continuous yarn. Appearance is more
fiber ends on the surface of yarn (hairy) and dull. The length of
Physical properties the fiber affect the hand feel of the fabric. Filament used which
4.Length fewer fiber ends on the surface of a fabric, creating a smooth
and even surface. Staple fibers used which hairy surface
creating a soft and fluffy touch surface.
  Luster is the amount of light reflected by fiber.
-Completely flat cross sections fibers have a high luster.
-Trilobal fibers can increase luster because the reflection of light
not only from the surface of the fiber but also from one lobe to
Physical properties another. When the lobes of the fiber increase, light rays are
5.Luster broken up and the luster decrease.
-Natural fiber: irregular appear caused subtle luster.
-Man-made fiber: mostly bright luster, sometime need to decrease
the luster by adding some chemical when the fiber is made.
  The diameter of a fiber is the distance across its cross section
 Measured in millimeters or in microns, e.g. cotton fiber
diameter are usually from 12-20 microns.
Physical properties
6.Diameter or Fineness
 Clothing fibers are made in relatively small diameters.
 Heavy-duty fibers for household items or industrial uses are
made with larger diameters.
  Fineness of fiber is related to softness, pliability and hand feel.
 Finer the fiber, higher the price.
Physical properties  Under recent advance technology, an extremely fine fibers
6.Diameter or Fineness
called microfibers developed. Their fabric have attractive hand
feel, light weight and draping qualities.
  Crimp fibers posses a wavy, undulating physical structure.
 Difference degree of crimp will affect the warmth and
resiliency of fabrics.
Physical properties
7.Crimp
 Wool has a natural 3-dimensional crimp.
 Fabrics made from crimped fibers or yarns tend to be more
resilient and have increased bulk, cohesiveness and warmth.
  Density is the ratio of “a mass of a substance” to “a unit of
volume”.
 Specific gravity (SG) is the density of the fiber in relation to
the density of an equal volume of water at a temperature of 4C.
-SG of water is 1
Physical properties
8.Specific gravity
-If a fiber has a SG>1, it is heavier than water.
-Only a few fibers has SG<1, most of them around 1.0-2.0 or
slightly above.
-Since SG is relative value, it cannot be reported in units such
as grams or inches.
  Mechanical properties: the performance of textile material
under applied forces and deformation.
Properties of fiber  The applied forces may cause the textile to stretch, compress,
Mechanical Properties bend or twist.
 Deformation is a change of shape or size under force.
  Fiber strength contributes to yarn strength and eventually
affects fabric durability.
Mechanical  It is usually expressed as tenacity.
properties  The fabric/garments made by high tenacity fiber are more
1.Strength durable.
 High tenacity fiber: Nylon, Polyester
 Low tenacity fiber: Acrylic, Acetate
  This is the ability to increase in length when under tension and
Mechanical then return into the original length when released.
properties  Fibers that can elongate at least 100% are called elastometric
2.Extensibility and Elasticity fibers.
 Higher elasticity, more comfort and better wrinkle resistance.
  Resiliency refers to the ability of a fiber to spring back to its
Mechanical natural position after folding, creasing or compression.

Properties  Polyester has high resiliency and also high wrinkle recovery.
3.Resiliency  Cotton has low resiliency, but good hand feel.
 These 2 fibers are always used together to make men’s shirt.
  Flexibility: the ability of fiber to be easily bent or folded.

Mechanical  Flexibility: is related to fiber fineness.

properties  Heavy, coarse fibers will be relatively inflexible and fabrics

4.Flexibility
made from them will be stiff.
 Microfibers have low bending stiffness, producing drapeable
fabrics with a soft hand feel.
  Absorbency means the ability of a fiber to absorb or take water
into itself.

Chemical properties  It is expressed as a percentage of moisture regain.

1.Absorbency  Technologists will takes a sample of fibers, dry it thoroughly,
and return the sample to a controlled atmosphere in which
temperature maintained 70F(21C) and 65%relative humidity.
  The amount of moisture taken up by the sample is then
measured to determine the moisture regain.
 By using the formula:
Chemical properties
1.Absorbency
 M.R=(moist weight – dry weight) x 100%
dry weight
  Fiber has high regain is hydrophilic
e.g. Cotton, comfortable to wear especially in hot weather. The
fiber remove moisture vapor from the skin of the wearer who
Chemical properties feels dryer and less clammy.
1.Absorbency
Fiber do not absorb moisture readily is hydrophobic.
e.g. Polyester is less comfortable in hot humid conditions.
  Electrical conductivity is the ability of a fiber to carry or
transfer electrical charges.
 Low conductivity fiber will cause the fabric cling or produce
Chemical properties electrical shocks.
2.Electrical conductivity  Poor conductivity is related to low moisture regain because
water is an excellent conductor of electricity.
 Many synthetic fiber have low electrical conductivity.
  Textile products may be subjected to heat not only during
manufacture but also in use. Fabrics may be pressed or dried in
Chemical properties a hot dryer.

3. Thermal stability  Many synthetic fibers soften or melt at various temperatures.

 Cellulose and protein fibers scorch or turn brown.
  Burning of small quantities of textile fibers can help to roughly
classify the fiber group.
-Cellulose fibers: like burning paper
Chemical properties -Protein fibers: like burning hair
4.Flammability
-Synthetic fibers: melt when burning
-The odor produced when a fiber burns and the kind of ash that
remains after burning aid in the identification of the fiber.
  There are many chance in contact with difference kinds of
chemicals when the fabric are dyeing or finishing.
 Effect of acid:
Chemical properties -cellulose fibers are easy damaged by acid, the tensile strength
5.Resistance to chemicals drop rapidly
-protein fibers can suffer dilute acids, especially wool, acid
treatments can be used to clean vegetable matter.
  Effect of alkali:
-natural cellulosic fibers can suffer strong alkali. The strength and
appearance of these fibers will improve under the treatment in
strong alkali at high temperature.
-protein fibers (silk, wool, animal hair) are easy damaged by
Chemical properties alkali
5.Resistance to chemical
 Oxidation
The fiber/ fabric can be more white when adding the oxidizing
agent. Chlorine bleach is an oxidizing agent that may damage
protein fibers and Spandex, but always apply to cellulosic fibers,
Nylon, Polyester.
  Resistance to sunlight
-many fabrics lose strength after long exposure to sunlight.
-some of them may be discolored.
 Resistance to insects
Environmental
properties -many synthetic fibers have good ability to resist insect damage.
-most natural cellulosic fibers are easy damaged by insect.
 Resistance to mildew
-synthetic fibers are resisted mildew.
-most natural cellulosic fibers are very weak in resistance to
mildew.
Fiber analysis
Burning test
Yarn

A continuous twisted strand of natural or synthetic fibers, used

in weaving, knitting, etc.
  Yarns are assemblies of fibers twisted or otherwise held
together in a continuous strand.

Making fibers into  Fiber for yarns is supplied either in long filaments or short
staple lengths.
yarns
 The type of yarn chosen for a fabric affects its appearance,
durability, hand feel and draping characteristics.
 The term spinning is generally used to describe the conversion
of fibers into yarn.
  The primary classification of yarns is as filament or staple.
Type of yarn  These terms were introduced earlier to describe the length of
fibers, but are also used to distinguish yarns.
  Filament yarns are made from long, continuous strands of fiber.
 Monofilament yarns, those made from a single filament, find
Filament yarns limited use in Nylon hosiery, in some open-work decorative
fabrics.
 Monofilament yarns can be made by the extrusion of large
single filaments from spinnerets.
  Many filament yarns are joined to form multifilament yarns.
 Multifilament yarns can be made more cohesive by twisting
them together.
 The amount of twist together with the characteristics f the
Filament yarns fibers (luster, cross –sectional shape etc.)will determine the
appearance and feel of the yarn.
 Sometimes filament yarns are put through an additional process
called texturing. Texturing modifies the feel and bulk of
filament yarns.
 Most of the filament in apparel uses are multifilament yarns.
  Staple (or Spun)yarns are made from staple length fibers.
Staple yarns  Short fibers must be held together by some means in order to
be formed into a long, continuous yarn.
  Although the multiple processes required to make staple yarn
add significantly to the cost of the yarn, the aesthetic qualities
such as comfort, warmth, softness and appearance make these
yarns highly desirable in many products.
Staple yarns
 Natural fibers (except silk) are all staple fibers.
 Silk and man-made fibers can be cut or broken into staple
fibers, so that it is possible to spin any natural or man-made
fiber into a staple yarn.
  Yarns classified by number of parts are divided into single, ply
Yarns classified by and cord yarns.

number of parts  Single yarn

-a group of filament or staple fibers twisted together.
-if a single yarn is untwisted, it will separate into fibers.
  The yarns have uniform size and regular surface.
 They have varying degrees of twist, ranging from loose to
moderate, tight or hard twist.
Yarns classified by  Single, ply and cord yarns can all be simple yarns if their
similarity of parts components are uniform in size and have a regular surface.
 When one strand of fibers is twisted together evenly, it is
classified as a simple single yarn.
 Two simple, single yarns twisted together create a simple ply
yarn.
  In the design of textile products, yarns are first selected on the
basis of their mechanical properties (such as strength,
extensibility etc.) or physiological properties (such as vapour
permeability and moisture transport).
Yarn classified by
 Fancy yarns or novelty yarns may also be selected for their
similarity of parts appearance. Special types of yarns can be created to give
particular optical effects.
 Fancy yarns made to create interesting decorative effects in the
fabrics.
 Fancy yarns can be single, ply, cord, staple, or filament.
  All staple yarns and some filament yarns have twist applied to
them to hold the fibers together.
 The degree of twist given to a yarn affects a number of aspects
Yarn twist of its appearance, behavior and durability.
 The amount of twist in a given yarn can be measured.
 Twist may be expressed as turns per meter TPM or turns per
inch (TPI).
  Low twist staple yarn: 2-12 TPI
-the yarn is comparatively soft and more elastic
-low twist staple yarns are usually used in knitting sweaters.
Yarn twist
 High twist staple yarn: 20-30TPI
-the yarn is comparatively smooth, harsh and higher strength.
-high twist staple yarns are usually used in woven fabric.
  The bulkiness of yarns is related to twist. In general, increasing
twist decreases apparent yarn size. The more the twists, the
yarn becomes smaller in diameter.
Effects of twist  Strength increase in staple yarn as twist increases up to a
certain point. Beyond this point, the strength of the yarn begins
to decrease and yarns with exceptionally high, tight twist may
become brittle and weak.
  Elasticity is increased if yarn are twisted tightly. Tightly twisted
yarns are known as crepe yarns. The twist of crepe yarn is so
high that they curl up unless they are held under tension.

Effects of twist  More tightly twisted yarns shed soil more easily. Because their
surface is smoother, there are fewer loose fiber ends to attract
and hold soil.
 In yarns made from absorbent fibers, absorbency is lower in
more tightly twisted yarns.
  Abrasion resistance is increased by tighter twist.
-more fibers are held together in a tightly twisted yarn and subject
to a relatively even distribution of abrasion. Loose surface fibers
in low-twist yarns easy pull up and creating points of wear.
Effect of twist  Appearance of a fabric can be determined to a large extent by
the twist of the yarn.
-crepe fabrics achieve a crinkled effects by using creped yarns
that have a less even surface tecture.
-unevenly twisted slub yarns can also produce a rough surface.
  In twisting fibers together to form yarns, the fibers can be
twisted either to the right or to the left. They are called S or Z
twist.
 Z twisted yarn (right twist)
Direction of twist -The direction of twist follows the center bar of the letter Z.
 S twisted yarn (left twist)
-The direction of twist follows the center bar of the letter S.
  There are different systems of measurement for cotton-type
yarn, wool-type yarn and other systems for filament yarns.

Yarn Size  The present trend is toward use of metric measurements, but
traditional terminology is still used.
 There are 2 numbering systems for yarn measurement; direct
numbering systems and indirect numbering systems.
  Direct system: number of mass units per unit of length
 The measures used are tex or denier
-Tex: the weight in grams of 1000m length of yarn
Yarn size e.g.: 20 tex means that 1km of yarn has a mass of 20g.
Direct numbering system
-Denier: the weight in grams of 9000m length of yarn
 In all these measures, the higher the number, the coarser the
yarn.
  The formula use in direct numbering system
-N=(W x I)/L
-N-yarn count (tex or denier)
Yarn size
Direct numbering system
-W-the weight of the sample yarn (in grams)
-I-the length of the used system(tex or denier)
-L-actual length of the sample yarn (in meter)
  Indirect methods=number of length units per unit of mass
 Each system establishes a number of hanks of yarn that make
up either a pound or a kg of yarn weight.
Yarn size  The measures used are metric number (Nm) or English number
Indirect numbering system (Ne).
-Nm: the length in meters of 1g of yarn.
e.g.: 40Nm means that 40m of yarn has a mass of 1g.
  The size of the hanks used is different for the different natural
fibers:
-cotton count-the number of 840 yards hanks in 1 pound.
-silk count-the number of 840 yards hanks in 1 pound.
Yarn size
-Linen count-the number of 300 yards hanks in 1 pound.
Indirect numbering system
-woolen count-the number of 1600 yards hanks in 1 pound.
-worsted count-the number of 560 yards hanks in 1 pound.
-metric count-the number of 1000 meters hanks in 1 kg
  The formula use in indirect numbering system
-N=L/(I x W)
-N -yarn count (Ne or Nm)
Yarn size
Indirect numbering system
-W -the weight of the sample yarn (in LB)
-I - the length of the used system
-L - actual length of the sample yarn (in yd)
  Cotton Ring Spinning (Siro/ Compact/ Nu-Tor)
 Cotton Vortex Spinning (Coarse Cotton)
 Worsted Spinning (Wool/ Acrylic)
Yarn type
Spinning methods
 Woolen Mule Spinning (Wool Blend)
 Semi-Worsted Spinning (All Staple Fibers)
 Fancy Roller (Boucle/ Brush/ Roving/ Slub)