Chapter six

(Environmental Ergonomics)

Instructor:-Alemayehu Tesfaye
 CHAPTER SIX
ENVIRONMENTAL ERGONOMICS
2

INTRODUCTION
 The word ergonomics is derived from the Greek words ‘ergon’ (work)

and ‘nomos’ (law)

 Ergonomics is the study of work in relation to the environment in

which it is performed (the workplace) and those who perform it

(worker)
 Ergonomics is the study of work in relation to the environment in

which it is performed (the workplace) and those who perform it

(workers).
 … cont’d
3

It is used to determine how the workplace can be

designed or adapted to the worker in order to prevent

a variety of health problems and to increase
efficiency; in other words, to make the job fit the
worker, instead of forcing the worker to conform to
the job.
 … cont’d
4

Benefits of applying ergonomics in the workplace

For the worker-healthier and safer working
conditions.
For the employer-increased productivity.
Ergonomics can be used to prevent bad design from being
built into a job if applied when a job, tools or
workstations are being set up. Injuries caused by
repetitive work are generally called repetitive strain
injuries (RSIs). RSIs are very painful and can become
permanently crippling.
 …cont’d
5

In the early stages of RSI, a worker may only feel

aching(painful) and fatigue at the end of the work
shift. However, as the condition gets worse, there can
be extreme pain and weakness in the affected area of
the body. This condition can become permanent and
can progress to a point where the worker cannot do
his or her job any longer.
A well designed workstation is important for
preventing diseases related to poor working
conditions, as well as for ensuring that work is
productive.
 …cont’d
6

Every workstation should be designed with both the

worker and the task in mind so that work can be

performed comfortably, smoothly and efficiently.
Physical environmental factors such as Noise, Vibration,

Illumination, Climate and Ventilation can affect people’s

safety, health and comfort.
 …cont’d
7

The physical aspects of a workplace environment can have a

direct impact on:
 productivity,

health and safety,

comfort,

concentration,

job satisfaction and

 morale of the people within it.

 Thermal environments
8

Environmental factors (such as humidity and sources of heat

in the workplace) combine with personal factors (such as the
clothing a worker is wearing and how physically demanding
their work is) to influence what is called someone’s ‘thermal
comfort’.
Thermal comfort: That condition of mind which expresses
satisfaction with the thermal environment.
Thermal distress: Excessive temperature.
 Heat exchange with the environments
9

The avenues (ways) by which the human body exchanges

heat with the environment are:
Conduction-by direct contact between the skin and

various objects (floor, stone, hot kitchen appliances, etc.)

Convection-through the air

Evaporation-by sweating

Radiation-by means of electromagnetic waves

 …cont’d
10
 …cont’d
11
 In calculating the effects of different forms of thermal stress, it is
possible to use the simple heat balance equation developed by Burton
(1934), which defines the heat balance state of the human body as:
±S = M ± CV± CD± R− E
Where
S = is bodily heat storage expressed either as the rate of heating (+) or cooling (–) in the body,
M = is the rate of bodily metabolic heat production,
CV = is the rate of heat gained (+) or lost (–) by convection,
CD=is the rate of heat gain(+) or lost (-) by conduction
R = is the rate of heat gained (+) or lost (–) by radiation, and
E = is the rate of evaporative heat loss,
When S = 0 the body is said to be in the state of balance or thermal equilibrium. In conditions
of heat stress, heat storage takes place, and S is positive. In conditions of cold stress, the body
loses heat to the environment, and S is negative.
 Human thermoregulation
12

Humans are homeothermic (i.e. body temperature is

maintained independent of environmental temperature)

Thermoregulation is achieved by balancing the two main factors

that determine body temperature:
the metabolic heat produced and

the rate of heat loss

The thermoregulatory goal is to maintain the core temperature at

approximately 36– 37°C or 38°C.
 …cont’d
13

The following are the physiological thermoregulatory

mechanisms for maintaining heat balance:
Sweating-loss of heat through the skin to regulate the body

temperature.
 Shivering-an involuntary muscular activity that enhances

heat production in an attempt to restore homeostasis (the

process of keeping the internal body environment in a
steady state)
 …cont’d
14
 Heat stress
15
What is heat stress?
Working or playing where it is hot puts stress on your

body’s cooling system, heat stress. When heat is

combined with other stresses such as hard physical work,
loss of fluids, fatigue or some pre-existing medical
conditions, it may lead to heat-related illness, disability
and even death.
 …cont’d
16

Heat stress occurs when our body is unable to cool

itself enough to maintain a healthy temperature.

Normally, the body cools itself by sweating, but
sometimes sweating isn’t enough and the body
temperature keeps rising.
 …cont’d
17

 Heat exposure may occur in many workplaces. Significant

sources of heat can be found in workplaces such as foundries,

smelters, chemical plants, bakeries and commercial kitchens.
 For outdoor workers, direct sunlight is usually the main

source of heat.
 In mines, especially deep mines, geothermal gradients and

equipment contribute to heat exposure. Humidity in

workplaces also contributes to heat stress.
 …cont’d
18

The heat balance: the sum of all heat losses and gains of the body; left: in heat stress, heat loss is
lower than heat production, causing heat to be stored in the body (increase in body
temperature); middle: in comfort, loss and gain are balanced; right: in cold stress, more heat is
lost than produced, leading to body cooling. The size of the characters of the individual
thermal heat exchange factors represents their importance in the thr ee situations
 Effects of heat stress on health
19
Exposure to heat stress can cause the following heat disorders and
illnesses:
Behavioral disorders-include temporary heat tiredness and

prolonged heat tiredness resulting in permanent reduction of

performance capacity
Skin eruptions-they can take the form of heat rashes (tiny

raised red vesicles) or anhidrotic heat exhaustion (gooseflesh

areas of skin that do not sweat upon heat exposure).
 …cont’d
20

Heat cramps-Painful contractions of muscles used during

work caused by reduction of salt. Heavy sweating from
strenuous physical activity drains a person’s body of fluid
and salt, which cannot be replaced just by drinking water.
Heat exhaustion-Caused by dehydration, depletion of
circulating blood volume, and/or competing demands for
blood flow by the skin and active muscles (includes
fatigue, nausea, headache, and dizziness)
 …cont’d
21

Heat syncope-Caused by pooling of blood in widened

vessels of skin and lower parts of the body. It may cause
fainting while standing erect and immobile in the heat.
Symptoms include sudden fainting after at least two hours
of work with cool moist skin and weak pulse.
Heat stroke- If a person’s body has used up all its water
and salt reserves, it will stop sweating.
Symptoms include confusion, loss of consciousness,
shakings, and continuous rise of core temperature
 Reducing heat stress
22

In hot workplaces a variety of engineering and

administrative controls can be implemented for Control of
Heat Stress.
Engineering Controls
 Install air conditioner in the workplace.
 If air temperature is above 35°C, increase cooling by
enhanced general or local ventilation by means of fans
and blowers.
 Install line-of-sight radiant reflective shields around
radiant heat sources.
 …cont’d
23

Where possible, apply coating to the radiant heat source

to reduce its emissivity
Where possible, eliminate water-vapor sources in the
workplace.
 Automate or mechanize physical components of work
to reduce physical activity demands.
 Provide heat-protective clothing (goggles, heat
reflective garments, etc.) where necessary.
 Train workers on how to wear such clothing.
 …cont’d
24
Administrative Controls
 Schedule hot activities during the cooler parts of the
day.
Schedule routine maintenance and repair activities in hot

spots in the cooler seasons of the year.

Increase personnel to reduce heat stress exposure time

per worker.
 …cont’d
25

Make water or other fluids readily available to hot

workplaces.
Encourage frequent water intake in hot industrial

workplaces. Water should be taken at least once every

hour.
Schedule frequent rest periods with water breaks in

shaded or air conditioned areas

 Cold stress
26

Cold stress is a response of the body to cold temperatures

resulting from heat loss from a portion of the body such as the
feet, hands, extremities or head.
If the worker is exposed to an environment so cold that the

body can not maintain adequate deep core temperature,

hypothermia, which can also be life-threatening, may result.
 …cont’d
27

Symptoms brought on by cold stress include shivering,

clouded consciousness, pain in the extremities, dilated

pupils, reduced grip strength and coordination.
 28

 Low temperature conditions may be caused by winter cold, high altitudes,

refrigerated surfaces and/or cryogenic lines and equipment. These can result in
muscle strain as well as cold "burns," frostbite, and hypothermia.
 Frostbite is an injury caused by freezing of the skin and
underlying tissues. In the earliest stage of frostbite, known as
frostnip, there is no permanent damage to skin. Symptoms
include cold skin and a prickling feeling, followed by numbness
and inflamed or discolored skin
 Hypothermia is caused by prolonged exposures to very
cold temperatures. When exposed to cold temperatures, your
body begins to lose heat faster than it's produced. Lengthy
exposures will eventually use up your body's stored energy,
which leads to lower body temperature.
Frostbite
29
30
 …cont’d
31

Why is it vital that employers ensure that there workers

are safe from hazards of working in cold conditions?
Because the cold…
Decreases efficiency of the workers

Decrease mental capacity

Increase the number of accidents on the jobsite

 …cont’d
32

Signs and symptoms of lower body temperature:

Constant shivering

Blue lips and fingers

Crazy and confused behavior

Reduced mental alertness

Poor coordination

Poor decision making

 Guidelines on thermal comfort
33

The indoor climate needs to satisfy several conditions if

work is to be carried out in comfort. Four climatic factors
(air temperature, radiation temperature of cold and hot
surfaces, air velocity, and relative humidity) are significant
in this respect. Whether a climate is considered pleasant
depends also on the level of physical effort required by the
work and on the type of clothing.
 …cont’d
34

The following are the guidelines on thermal comfort

Allow people to control the climate themselves

Adjust air temperature to physical effort

 Avoid hot or cold radiating surfaces

 Avoid extremely hot and cold climates

 Materials which must be touched should be neither too

cold nor too hot.

 …cont’d
35

Locate equally heavy tasks together in a room

 Adjust outdoor tasks to the climate

 Prevent unwanted hot or cold radiation

 Limit the time spent in hot or cold environments

 Use special clothing when working for long periods in

hot or cold environments

 LIGHT AND VISION

36

THE EYE AND HOW IT WORKS

The eye is a fluid-filled membranous sphere that converts

electromagnetic radiation into nerve impulses that it transmits

to the brain along the optic nerve.

Light enters through a transparent outer covering called the

cornea.

The cornea plays a major role in refracting the light. Further

refraction occurs as the light passes through the lens.

 …cont’d
37

The pupil works like the aperture of a camera to vary the amount of light

entering the eye.

In bright light, the iris contracts, the pupil diameter decreases and only the

central part of the lens forms an image on the retina.

In poor light, the iris expands and a larger area of the lens is used. Because

the peripheral regions of the lens focus the light slightly in front of the image

formed by the central part.

This explains why the ability to tell the difference detail (visual sharpness) is

reduced in poor light.

 …cont’d
38

Using photographic terminology, it can be said that:-

Good lighting increases the depth of field of the eye. When the
pupil is very small, the eye acts like a pinhole camera – all
objects are focused on the retina irrespective of viewing distance.
Increased depth of field reduces the need for optical adjustment
by the lens.
Generally, good lighting reduces the load on the visual system
 39

Vision
Vision is our premier connection with the world.

We use our eyes to interact with our environment in more than one
million ways every second.

The eye is an extension of the brain and is our direct link between
our physical (outer) environment and our psychological (inner) mind.

Over 80% of our learning comes from our vision and we most often
‘believe’ something when we can see it.
 …cont’d
40

Vision begins with ‘visible’ light—a portion of the radiation spectrum

that simulates the nerve endings in the retina.

The eyes can sense about ten million gradations of light and seven
million different shades of color.

The retina, which captures light and transforms it into nerve impulses,
can form, dissolve and create a new image every tenth of a second.

The eye is not equally sensitive to all wavelengths of light and there is a
human perception transfer function. This function depends upon the
level of light present.
41
 42

Contrast
The eye has to make an effort to distinguish between objects which have little
contrast.

It can be particularly difficult to distinguish such objects when lighting is dim.

Moving from a very bright area, (from direct sunlight or acetylene lighting) to
a shaded area can be dangerous, as the eyes require time to adjust to the
different lighting, and therefore vision may be temporarily impaired.

In transport routes sharp shadows can lead to accidents if lighting is

inadequate. This problem exists in many workplaces.
 43

Reflection
Reflection is the ability of a surface to throw back light. The darker the surface
the less light it will reflect and the more light will be required in the location.
Light reflected directly into the eye can cause glare.

Glare
Glare occurs when we look into a light which is brighter than that which the
eye can adapt to.
This can occur when the artificial lights are placed too low without a shield or
when sunlight shines straight into the workplace.
 …cont’d
44

Indirect glare can occur when light is reflected off shiny surfaces.
1. Glare from a low ceiling lamp.
2. Glare from a work lamp incorrectly positioned.
3. Indirect glare. The light is being reflected.
This can be avoided by using and properly positioning the
correct type of lamp.
Glare from a low ceiling lamp, incorrectly positioned. Indirect glare, the light is being reflected

incorrectly positioned. Indirect glare, the

Glare from a low ceiling lamp,
light is being reflected
 …cont’d
46

Our eyes can adjust to a wide range of brightness, but inadequate

lighting makes it difficult to work and contributes to accidents.

Poor lighting can also result in eye problems.

For most jobs we need to see the materials, products and other
equipment clearly. If we cannot see well we may easily suffer from

Tiredness,

Over-exertion and

Headaches.
 47

Adequate lighting is important, for the following reasons:

Focus: The eye cannot focus simultaneously on objects which are close and
far away. When we rapidly change our focus on objects at different distances,
the eye becomes tired. This can occur in inspection or assembly work. In such
cases there should be plenty of light available, particularly at the area furthest
away from the eye.

Changes in the eyesight: Everybody’s eyesight is different. Some people

have weaker eyesight. Moreover, the ability of the eye to adjust rapidly to
different distances declines as we grow older.
 48

Basic lighting topics to design Ergonomically.

Daylight

Artificial lighting is not as good as daylight, but daylight varies

with the seasons and weather conditions. Consequently the

amount of lighting required should be determined regardless of

the amount of daylight.

 …cont’d
49

Adequate lighting should reach your work area without being

shadowed by you or part of a machine.

This holds true with either daylight or artificial lighting

The following factors are important to get as much daylight
as possible:

Stored material should not be piled up where it blocks daylight.

Windows should be kept clean, inside and outside.

If the window faces a wall, that wall should be painted white so as to reflect

more daylight into the work area.

 …cont’d
50

In factories, windows and skylights can help increase lighting.

Walls inside the factory should be painted light colors to make the most of

daylight as well as artificial lighting.

variations in operating conditions must be known before a

suitable lighting system can be designed

There are several important factors that should be

considered in the design of any lighting system

 …cont’d
51

Suitable brightness for the task at hand

Uniform lighting on the task at hand.

Suitable brightness contracts between task and background.

Lack of glare from either the light source or the work surface.

Suitable quality and color of illuminants and surfaces.

The light intensity, for instance, the amount of light which falls on

the work surface, must be sufficiently high whenever visual tasks

have to be carried out rapidly, and with precision and ease.

 52

Good illumination is necessary for most human operator tasks

Apart from light intensity, differences in luminance (contrast) in
the visual field are also important.
Luminance is the amount of light reflected back to the eyes from
the surface of objects in the visual field.
Light intensity is expressed in lux and luminance (brightness) in
candela per m2 (cdm)
 53

General and local lighting

Normally the lighting in a work premises consists of general lighting or a
combination of general and local lighting.
General lighting is lighting from ceiling or wall lamps.
It illuminates the entire premises.
Local lighting is lighting placed near workers to give direct light to
object(s).
Combining general and local lighting allows the lighting to suit the
worker and the work.
Poor background lighting and the lack of local lighting causes
 54

 unsuitable working positions and fatigue,

 and can also help lower productivity and the quality of the
work.

Lighting requirements :
Most of the light should fall on the material or objects that we are working with.

The light source should as a rule is positioned behind and to the side of the left

shoulder if the person is right-handed.

(This only applies to the actual lighting of the individual work station .)

Among the factors important in determining the quantity of the light are:
 …cont’d
55

The nature of the work (e.g. more light will be required

for precision work)

The ability of the surrounding surfaces to reflect light

The size, form and light-reflecting properties of the

material or object, and whether the object is easily

distinguishable from the background

The eyesight of the workers.

 56

Cleaning and maintaining lamps and fittings.

The output of light decreases with the age of the light source. The
most common reasons are:
 Wear of the light sources (lamps)
 Dirty fittings and/or dirty light sources
 Dirt on the surfaces of the room
 Dirty reflectors and dirty anti-glare devices
Fig.3.6. Working table and lighting
 58

Dirt on the lamps and fittings is the biggest single reason

for loss of lighting.

Generally speaking, it is the type of work performed on the

premises that determines how quickly the light fitting
becomes dirty. The required standard of lighting is more
easily maintained if the lamps are cleaned and changed
regularly.
 59

Stress and Vision

Stress is something we live with every day. It has become
an integral part of our work day, as well as other aspects
of our lives.
 It has positive and negative effects on our biological
system.
stress with muscle tension.
Stress usually leads to increased (excessive) muscle
tension.
Stress can easily affect vision.
 60

Yet measuring how this occurs is not a routine clinical

process since stress is often simply a subjective symptom.
But since the eye and visual system are directly connected
to the brain, measuring brain waves can be an indication
of visual stress.
 61

GUIDELINES ON LIGHT INTENSITY

In determining the amount of light which must fall from
the surroundings onto a work surface,
It is necessary to distinguish between
orientation lighting,
normal working lighting and
special lighting.
Select a light intensity of 10–200 lux for orientation tasks
 …cont’d
62

A light intensity of 10–200 lux is sufficient where the

visual aspect is not critical, for example in the corridors of
public buildings, or for general activities in store rooms,
provided no reading is required.
Select a light intensity of 200–800 lux for normal
activities
Reading normal print, operating machines and carrying
out assembly tasks can be considered normal visual
tasks, and the following guidelines apply in this
instance:
 Table 3.1 Perception by humans of a few luminance ratios…cont’d.

Luminance ratio Perception

1 None

3 moderate

10 High

30 too high

100 far too high

300 extremely unpleasant

Table 1Perception by humans of a few luminance ratios.

 …cont’d
64

 A light intensity of 200 lux is adequate if the information is large

enough and contrasts sufficiently with the background, for
example, black letters printed on white paper.
 Greater light intensities are necessary if the details are small or if
the contrast is poor;
 People with limited vision and older persons require more light;
 …cont’d
65

Select a light intensity of 800–3000 lux for special

applications
It is sometimes necessary to use localized task lighting.
This can compensate for shadows or reflections on the
work surface.
For special activities such as visual inspection tasks,
much higher illumination levels are used to enable fine
details to be distinguished
 66

GUIDELINES ON BRIGHTNESS DIFFERENCES

This section provides some guidelines on differences in
brightness within the visual field.
The visual field can be divided into three zones: that of
the task area, the close surroundings and the wider
surroundings.
Avoid excessive differences in brightness in the visual
field
Excessive differences in brightness between objects or
surfaces in the visual field are undesirable.
 …cont’d
67

Large differences can result among other things from

reflections, dazzling lights and shadows.
Limit the brightness differences between the task area
itself, the close surroundings, and the wider surroundings
The brightness of the task area should not be three times
larger or three times smaller than that of the close
surroundings.
Differences in brightness that are too small should also be
avoided because this makes a room look uninteresting
 68

IMPROVED LIGHTING
Steps taken to improve lighting aim mainly to provide
sufficient light intensity and to avoid excessive brightness
differences in the visual field
such as may occur with light sources, windows,
reflections and shadows.
Improve the legibility of information
Further increases in light intensity are pointless when
lighting is already intense.
 …cont’d
69

Select a combination of ambient and localized lighting

Except for orientation tasks, the required light intensity on
a work surface can be achieved by a combination of fairly
limited ambient lighting and more intense localized, or
task lighting.
Daylight can also be used for ambient lighting
Available daylight should also be used for general
lighting. Incoming daylight and a view to the outside are
much appreciated by most people.
Screen sources of direct light
 Fig.3.8 correct and incorrect way of locating ligh…cont’dt

Light sources must be located in such a way that reflections and shadows are
avoided. Fig.3 correct and incorrect way of locating light
 71

Prevent reflections and shadows

Use diffuse lighting
Excessive reflections can be avoided by using indirect
(i.e., diffuse) lighting in ceilings. Table tops, walls and
suchlike should also produce diffuse reflection of any
incident light,
The optimum amount of light reflected from a surface
(reflectance) depends on the purpose of that surface.
Recommended reflectance values are given in the coming
Table.
 …cont’d

 The reflectance is a value between zero and one, with a zero value
meaning that no light is reflected (dark surface) and a value of one
meaning that all the light is reflected (light surface). To compare the
three types of artificial lighting

 Table 2 Recommended values for the reflectance of various surfaces

Surface Reflectance
ceiling 0.80–0.90 (‘light’)
walls 0.40–0.60
table tops 0.25–0.45
floor 0.20–0.40 (‘dark’)
 73

RECOMMENDED ILLUMINATION FOR

DIFFERENT TYPE OF TASKS.
The illumination we are using for different type of task is
not the same. In the following three tables we will see the
recommended amount of illumination for different type of
task.
Table 3. Recommended Illumination Levels, Industrial
and Manufacturing
Types of work Levels(foot candles) Types of work Levels(foot candles)

Drilling, riveting 30 Drafting 100

Layout and template 50 Lofting 150

Welding 30 Machining:-

At work point 1000 Rough 20

Assembly 30 Extra fine 200

extra-fine assembly 300 Sheet metal:

Finishing, inspection 200 Punch, stamp 30

Paint booth 30 Scribing 100

Glass-grind, polish 50 Receiving, shipping 10

Table 3 Recommended Illumination Levels,Industrial and Manufacturing

 Table 3.4 General illumination levels

Table 4 General illumination levels

Task condition Level Type of illuminations
(foot candles)

Small detail, low contacts, prolonged 100 Supplementary type of lighting.

periods, high speed, extreme accuracy Special fixture such as desk lamp.
Small detail, fair contracts, close work, 50-100 Supplementary type of lighting.
speed not essential
Normal desk and office-type work 20-50 Local lighting. Ceiling fixture
directly overhead.
Recreational tasks that are not prolonged 10-20 General lighting. Random room
light, either natural or artificial.
Seeing not confined, contrasts good, object 5-10 General lighting.
fairly large
Visibility for moving about, handling large 2-5 General or supplementary lighting.
objects
Table 5 Specific Recommendations, Illumination Levels

Location Levels(foot Location Levels(foot

candles) candles)
Home School
Reading 40 On chalkboards 50
Writing 40 Desks 30
Sewing 75-100 Drawing (art) 50
Kitchen 50 Gyms 20
Mirror(shaving) 50 Auditorium 10
Laundry 40 Theater
Games 40 Lobby 20
Location Levels(foot Location Levels(foot candles)
candles)
Workbench 50 During intermission 5
General 10 or more During movie 0.1
Office Passenger train
Bookkeeping 50 Reading and writing 20-40
Typing 50 Dining 15
Transcribing 40 Steps, vestibules 10
General 30 Doctors office
correspondence
Filing 30 Examination room 100
Reception 20 Dental surgical 200
Operating table 1800
 P R E S E N TAT I O N O U T L I N E
78

OCCUPATIONAL NOISE ENVIRONMENT

The Human Ear And Sound
Measuring Noise
Health Effects Of Noise Exposure
Safe Noise Levels
Methods Of Noise Control
 …cont’d
79

OCCUPATIONAL VIBRATION
Definition and Its Types

Effects Of Occupational Vibration

Measures To Reduce Vibration

COST OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASE OR ACCIDENT

ROLE OF THE HEALTH & SAFETY REPRESENTATIVE
Strategy For Winning Ergonomic Improvements In The
Workplace
 OCCUPATIONAL NOISE ENVIRONMENT

80

Noise is sound that people do not like.

Noise can be annoying and it can interfere with

your ability to work by causing stress and disturbing

your concentration.
The Human Ear and Sound
81

The ear converts sound waves in air into nerve impulses,

which travel along the auditory nerve to the brain.

1. Pressure variations due to longitudinal waves in the environment are
guided into the external auditory meatus where they cause a
mechanical vibration of the tympanic membrane (eardrum). The
tympanic membrane is connected to three small bones (ossicles) in the
middle ear which, in turn, are caused to vibrate
2. Mechanical vibration of the auditory ossicles is converted to wave
motion in the cochlear fluid at the oval window.
3. Wave motion in the cochlear fluid is converted to nerve impulses in the
auditory nerve by hair cells in the cochlea.
MEASURING SOUND
82

Noise in the workplace may be disturbing because of its

frequency as well as its volume.
For example, a high-pitched noise, such as a whistle, irritates
the ears much more than a noise with a low pitch, even if the
volume is the same in both cases.
Inside a typical workplace, noise comes from different sources,
such as tools (machinery and materials handling), compressors,
background noise, etc. If you want to identify all of the noise
problems in the workplace, then you must measure the noise
from each source separately
An effective way to measure the noise in your workplace is
with a sound meter.
 …cont’d
83

Sounds have different intensities (loudness). For example,

if you shout at someone instead of whispering, your voice
has more energy and can travel a great distance, therefore
it has more intensity (loudness). Intensity is measured in
units which are calls decibels (dB) or dB(A). The decibel
scale is not a typical scale — it is a logarithmic scale.
Basically this means that a small increase in the decibel
level is, in reality, a big increase in the noise level.
 Frequency of Sound Waves
84

The vibration of a simple sound generating source forms a

sinusoidal (or sine) waves.

The height of the wave above the midline, at any given

time, represents the amount of above-normal air pressure

at that point.
Positions below the midline in turn, represent the

reduction in air pressure below normal.

 …cont’d
85

The frequency of sound is the number of cycles per

second.
Frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz), which is equivalent
to cycles per second
human ear is sensitive to frequencies in the range of 20 to
20,000Hz
 Intensity of Sound

86

Sound intensity is associated with the human sensation of

loudness.
Sound intensity is defined in terms of power per unit area.

The Bel (B), named after Alexander Graham Bell, is the

basic unit of measurement used.

The number of bels is the logarithm (to the base 10) of the
ratio of two sound intensities.
 …cont’d
87

sound power is directly proportional to the square of the

sound pressure.
The sound pressure level (SPL), in decibels, is therefore

defined as:
SPL (dB) =10log P12/P02
po = 10-12 watts / m2 = 0db=standard sound reference
I=p/A
HEALTH EFFECTS OF NOISE EXPOSURE
88

Hearing loss from exposure to noise in the workplace is

one of the most common of all industrial diseases.

The health effects of noise exposure depend on the level

of the noise and the length of the exposure.

1. temporary hearing loss
2. permanent hearing loss.
3. Other effects
 1. Temporary Hearing Loss
89

 After spending a short time in a noisy workplace, you may have

noticed that you cannot hear very well and you have a ringing in
your ears. This condition is called temporary threshold shift.
 The ringing and the feeling of deafness normally wear off after
you have been away from the noise for a short time. However, the
longer you are exposed to the noise, the longer it takes for your
hearing to return to “normal”.
 Temporary hearing loss, lasting from a few seconds to a few days.
 After leaving work, it may take several hours for a worker's ears
to recover. This may cause social problems because the worker
may find it difficult to hear what other people are saying or may
want the radio or television on louder than the rest of the family.
90
 2. Permanent Hearing Loss
91

This type of damage to the ear can be caused by long-

term exposure to loud noise or, in some cases, by short
exposures to very loud noises.
your ears does not recover and the hearing loss becomes
permanent. Permanent hearing loss can never be repaired
When a worker begins to lose his or her hearing,
 he or she may first notice that normal talking or other sounds,
such as warning signals, are becoming unclear.
 they may begin to read lips as people talk
 …cont’d
92

 In order to hear the radio or television they may need to turn up the
volume so much that it deafens the rest of the family.

“Getting used to” noise means you are slowly losing your

hearing.
 3. Other Effects
93

In addition to hearing loss, exposure to noise in the

workplace can cause a variety of other problems,
including chronic health problems:
 Exposure to noise over a long period of time decreases coordination
and concentration. This increases the chance of accidents happening.
 Noise increases stress, which can lead to a number of health
problems, including heart, stomach and nervous disorders.
 Noise is suspected of being one of the causes of heart disease and
stomach ulcers.
 …cont’d
94

 Workers exposed to noise may complain of nervousness,

sleeping problems and fatigue (feeling tired all the time).
 Excessive exposure to noise can also reduce job performance
and may cause high rates of absenteeism.
 SAFE NOISE LEVELS
95

A safe level of noise basically depends on two things:

 the level (volume) of the noise

 how long you are exposed to the noise.
The level of noise allowed by most countries' noise

standards is generally 85-90 dB over an eight-hour

workday (although some countries recommend that noise
levels be even lower than this).
 …cont’d
96

Exposure to higher noise levels may be allowed for

periods of less than eight hours of exposure time.
For example, workers should not be exposed to noise
levels above 95 dB for more than four hours per day
workers should never be exposed to more than 140 dB
of impulse noise (usually a very loud noise that occurs
only once) at any time.
 97
…cont’d
recommended
noise level for
Activity dB (A)
different activities
Recording studio 25
Recital hall 30
Hospital 35
Auditorium 40
Classroom 40
Offices 45
Banks, stores 50
Restaurants 50
Factories 50-80
Recommended limits of noise exposure in Ethiopian standard

No. of hours exposed Sound level dB

8 90
6 92
4 95
3 97
2 100
1.5 102
1 105
0.5 110
0.25 or less 115
98
99
To prevent impaired hearing, the average daily level of sound exposure
should not exceed 80dB (A).

100
 METHODS OF NOISE CONTROL
101

Workplace noise can be controlled

1. At the source
2. Using Barriers
3. At the worker
 Controlling Sound at the Source
102

controlling noise at its source is the best method of noise

control.
It can also often be cheaper than other methods of noise
control.
This method of control may require that some noisy
machinery be repl
Noise control at the source can also be engineered into an
existing device by making adjustments to parts or a whole
machine that reduce noise. aced.
 …cont’d
103

A rubber covering can be used to reduce noise from metal

falling on to metal.
Other engineering methods to reduce noise at the source
include:
 preventing or reducing impact between machine parts;
 reducing speeds gently between forward and reverse movements;
 replacing metal parts with quieter plastic parts;
 providing mufflers for the air outlets of pneumatic valves;
 changing the type of pump in hydraulic systems;
 changing to quieter types of fans or placing mufflers in the ducts of
ventilation systems;
 providing mufflers for electric motors;
 Providing mufflers for intakes of air compressors.
 …cont’d
104

 Regular maintenance, lubrication and replacement of worn or

defective parts can also be effective ways to reduce noise levels.
 Noise from the way materials are handled can be reduced by
measures such as:
 reducing the dropping height of goods being collected in bins and boxes;
 increasing the rigidity of containers receiving impact from goods, or
damping them with damping materials;
 using soft rubber or plastic to receive hard impacts;
 reducing the speed of conveyor systems;
 using belt conveyors rather than the roller type.
 A machine vibrating on a hard floor is a common source of
noise. Mounting vibrating machines on rubber mats or other
damping material will reduce the noise problem
 Controlling Noise By Using Barriers
105

If it is not possible to control the noise at the source, then

it may be necessary to enclose the machine, place sound-
reducing barriers between the source and the worker, or
increase the distance between the worker and the source.
 …cont’d
106

 The following chart is a simple method of knowing how much sound is

reduced by distance.

 If a small sound source produces a sound level of 90 dB at a distance of

1 meter, the sound level at a 2-meter distance is 84 dB, at 4 meters 78 dB,
etc.
 …cont’d
107

Here are a few points to remember when controlling noise

with barriers:
 an enclosure should not be in contact with any part of the machine;
 holes in the enclosure should be minimized;
 access doors and holes for wiring and piping should be fitted with
rubber gaskets;
 panels of insulating enclosures must be covered inside with sound-
absorbent material;
 exhausts and air vents must be silenced and directed away from
operators;
 the noise source should be separated from other work areas;
 sound-absorbent materials should be used, if possible, on walls, floors
and ceilings.
 Controlling Noise at the Worker
108

Controlling noise at the worker, by using ear protection

(sometimes called hearing protection) is, unfortunately, the
most common yet least effective form of noise control.
Generally there are two types of ear protection: earplugs and
earmuffs. Both are designed to prevent excessive noise from
reaching the inner ear.
Earplugs are the least desirable type of hearing protection
because they do not provide very effective protection against
noise and they can cause ear infection if pieces of the plug are
left in the ear or if a dirty plug is used
Earmuffs are more protective than earplugs if they are used
correctly
109
 …cont’d
110

Ear protection is the least acceptable method of

controlling an occupational noise problem because:
 the noise is still present: it has not been reduced;
 in hot, humid conditions workers often prefer earplugs (which are less
effective) because earmuffs make the ears sweaty and uncomfortable;
 management does not always provide the correct type of ear protection:
often it is a case of “the cheaper the better”;
 workers cannot communicate with each other and cannot hear warning
signals;
 if ear protection is provided instead of controlling the noise at source,
then management is putting the responsibility on the worker — it
becomes the worker's fault if he or she becomes deaf.
 OCCUPATIONAL VIBRATION
111

Vibration is defined as the oscillation of a body about a

reference position.
Mechanical vibration arises from a wide variety of
processes and operations performed in industry, mining
and construction, forestry and agriculture, and public
utilities.
Occupational exposure to vibration can be divided into
1. Hand Arm Vibration
2. Whole Body Vibration
 …cont’d
112

Hand Arm Vibration – Users of vibrating machinery and

power tools such as chainsaws, drills, grinders, lawn
mowers, air guns, concrete breakers, cleaning equipment,
power washers, wood working machinery, jack hammers
etc.

Whole Body Vibration – Working on vibrating platforms

and Drivers of mobile equipment such as tractors, fork lift
trucks, earth moving machinery, trucks etc
 …cont’d
113

The human response to vibration depends mainly on the

magnitude, frequency and direction of the vibration
signal.
The magnitude of vibration is quantified by its
displacement (m), its velocity (ms-1), or its acceleration
(ms-2).
For practical convenience, the magnitude of vibration is
expressed in terms of an average measure of the
acceleration, usually the root mean square value (ms -2
r.m.s.).
 EFFECTS OF OCCUPATIONAL VIBRATION
114

Contact with a vibrating machine transfers vibration

energy to a person's body. Depending on how the
exposure occurs, vibration may affect a major part of the
worker's body or only a particular organ
The most widely studied and most common type of
segmental vibration exposure is Hand-Arm Vibration
(HAV) exposure, which affects the hands and arms.
 …cont’d
115

Vibration-induced white finger (VWF) is the most

common condition among the operators of hand-held
vibrating tools. Vibration can cause changes in tendons,
muscles, bones and joints, and can affect the nervous
system. Collectively, these effects are known as Hand-
Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS).
116
 …cont’d
117

Workers affected by HAVS commonly report symptoms

such as:
 Attacks of whitening (blanching) of one or more fingers when
exposed to cold
 Tingling and loss of sensation in the fingers
 Loss of light touch
 Pain and cold sensations between periodic white finger attacks
 Loss of grip strength
 Bone cysts in fingers and wrists
The development of HAVS is gradual and increases in
severity over time. It may take a few months to several years
for the symptoms of HAVS to become noticeable.
118
Hand arm vibration
119
 …cont’d
120

Whole body vibration (WBV) energy enters the body

through a seat or the floor; it affects the entire body or a
number of organs in the body.
WBV is caused by machinery vibration passing through
the buttocks of seated people or the feet of standing
people.
The most widely reported WBV injury is back pain.
Prolonged exposure can lead to considerable pain and
time off work and may result in permanent injury and
having to give up work.
 121

Vibrations between 20 and 30 Hz set up the strongest

resonance between the head and shoulders.
Prolonged exposure to these vibration forces in these
frequency ranges may create chronic stresses and
sometimes even permanent damage to the affected organs
or body parts.
Causes of WBV
122
Whole body vibration
123
 human response to vibration

Axis Frequency(Hz Effect

)
Vertical 0.5 Motion sickness, nausea, sweating
2 Whole body moves as one
4 Vibration transmitted to head, Lumbar vertebrae
resonate, Problems writing or drinking
4-6 Resonance of gastrointestinal system
5 Maximum discomfort
10-20 Voice warbles
15-60 Vision blurred(resonance of the eyeballs)
Horizontal <1 Increased postural sway
1-3 Upper body destabilized
>10 Backrest is a prime cause of vibration transmission to
124
body
 health effect of vibration exposure
Disorder Effect of vibration
Low back problems Microfracture of vertebral endplate, Schnorl’s nodes
(following sudden intense shock), Increased disc pressure
caused by higher back muscle activity, Decrease disc height
Increased radial disc bulge (after chronic exposure)
Bad posture amplifies effects of vibration
Gastrointestinal Increased secretion of gastric juices causing acute stomach
problems ache, Possible link with gastric ulcers
Urogenital problems Slight evidence for a link with whole-body vibration in women

Cardiovascular
No evidence for association
problems
Hearing problems Some evidence that whole-body vibration combined with
noise amplifies hearing loss by 6 dB

125
 MEASURES TO REDUCE VIBRATION
126

Risks should be eliminated at source or reduced to a

minimum
Replacing the equipment with something that doesn't
vibrate is the answer.
use of appropriate vibration-absorbing materials is also
help to reduce vibration exposure
However, three immediate but short-term solutions to
decrease exposure include:
 Reduce the vibration.
 Remove yourself from the vibrating equipment.
 Reduce the time you work with the vibrating equipment.
 Additional ways to minimize risk of vibration include
127

Avoid health and safety risks from vibration

 it is recommended that vehicles, machines and such be designed to keep
the vibration level at any time below 0.5 m/s for whole-body vibration
and below 2.5 m/s for hand–arm vibration.
Prevent shocks and jolts
 Shocks and jolts often arise together with vibration. Shocks and jolts
with peak intensify more than three times higher than the average
vibration level will increase the total vibration stress and should be
avoided.
Maintain machines regularly
 Machines and handheld tools sometimes display loose fits, eccentricity
or imbalance, all of which cause vibration, noise and wear. Regular
maintenance is therefore very important.
 …cont’d
128

Prevent the transmission of vibration

 This is best done by damping the vibration where it enters the body, for
instance, by fitting floors, seats and handgrips with a damping material.
 An example is a well-damped seat in a bus, which makes it difficult for
the vibrations to reach the body from the floor.
 The seating surface is fitted with a damping material and a pneumatic
spring is located between the seat and floor for damping
 …cont’d
129

If necessary, direct the measures at the individual

 If measures at source and in transmission are not effective, then attention
must be directed at the individual. This can be done by reducing the
duration of exposure, for example by alternating tasks which entail
vibration with tasks that do not entail vibration.
COST OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASE OR ACCIDENT
130

Work-related accidents or diseases are very costly and can

have many serious direct and indirect effects on the lives
of workers and their families.
For employers, some of the direct costs are:
 payment for work not performed;
 medical and compensation payments;
 repair or replacement of damaged machinery and equipment;
 reduction or a temporary halt in production;
 increased training expenses and administration costs;
 possible reduction in the quality of work;
 negative effect on morale in other workers.
 …cont’d
131

One of the most obvious indirect costs is the human suffering

caused to workers' families, which cannot be compensated with
money.
Some of the indirect costs for employers are:
 the injured/ill worker has to be replaced;
 a new worker has to be trained and given time to adjust;
 it takes time before the new worker is producing at the rate of the
original worker;
 time must be devoted to obligatory investigations, to the writing of
reports and filling out of forms;
 accidents often arouse the concern of fellow workers and influence
labour relations in a negative way;
 poor health and safety conditions in the workplace can also result in
poor public relations.
 ROLE OF THE HEALTH AND SAFETY
REPRESENTATIVE
132

As the health and safety representative we can play an

important role in ensuring that ergonomics is used in the
workplace
Remember: the goal of ergonomics is to look for ways to make
the job fit the worker, instead of forcing the worker to conform
to the job.
When trying to eliminate or prevent problems that may exist
owing to the non-application of ergonomic principles, asking
the following questions may help us to identify the cause of the
problem:
(a) How well suited is the operator to his or her job, tools and workstation?
(b) How much time and effort does the worker spend on a particular task?
(c) How repetitive is the task?
 …cont’d
133

it is vital that the workers who will be affected by

ergonomic changes minor or major are involved in
discussions before changes are implemented. Their input
can be very helpful in determining necessary and
appropriate changes. They know their job better than
anyone else does.
 STRATEGY FOR WINNING ERGONOMIC
IMPROVEMENTS IN THE WORKPLACE
134

The following six points are a strategy which we as the

health and safety representative can use to help workers
win ergonomic improvements in the workplace.
1. Reach out to other workers
2. Collect information to identify problem areas
3. Study the areas you suspect are a problem
4. Gather recommendations from:
5. Push for necessary changes
6. Communicate with workers
 CONTROLLING RISK FACTORS
135

Ergonomic improvements are changes made to improve

the “fit” between a job and the capabilities of the
employees performing it.
The following control measures are widely accepted as
intervention strategies for controlling workplace
ergonomic hazards:
 Engineering Controls: Reduce or eliminate potentially hazardous
conditions through design, redesign, substitution, and replacement.
 Management Controls: Change work procedures and scheduling to
reduce exposure to the hazard.
 Interim Measures Temporary use of engineering and/or management
controls until permanent controls are in place.