Engineering Thermodynamics:

Energy and Energy Transfer

Lecture notes by Dr. Abdalla Al-Amiri
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Modified by Dr. Eyas Mahmoud
Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display
 Forms of Energy
• Energy can exist in many forms: thermal, kinetic, potential, electric, chemical, ..etc.
• Total energy of a system: E (extensive property)
• Specific energy: e = E/m (intensive property)
• Thermodynamics tells us nothing about the absolute value of energy, only changes.

- Thus, we can set our reference state, or zero point, of energy at any state we
like.
• Total = microscopic + macroscopic
- Macroscopic: relative to a reference frame
 Kinetic energy: KE
 Potential energy: PE
- Microscopic: related to the molecular structure of the material in
the system.
 Internal energy: U or u.
Hence, E
E  U  KE  PE e  u  ke  pe
m
Total Energy mV 2 Specific Energy
V2
U   mgz (kJ) u  gz (kJ/kg)
2 2 2
 Internal Energy
It is defined as the sum of the microscopic forms of energy of
a system.

(A) Thermal energy

(1) Sensible energy: Increase of kinetic energy w/o

a change in the substance phase

(2) Latent energy: refers to internal energy

associated with binding forces between molecules Translational Kinetic
(involves a phase change) Energy

Rotational Kinetic
(B) Chemical energy (atomic bonds) Energy

(C) Nuclear energy Vibrational Kinetic

Energy
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 Energy Transfer by Heat
 Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred
between two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by
virtue of a temperature difference

 A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an

adiabatic process

 Heat (Q) has energy units, kJ

 Heat transfer per unit mass of a system is denoted (q) and is

determined from:

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 Energy Transfer by Work
It is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.

Magnitude: depends on the path a process follows

Work
= Power
unit time

Terminologies

Specific work w = W/m (kJ/kg)

•
Power P = W = W / t (kJ/s or kW)

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 Sign Convention for Work

(W>0): Work is done by the system

(W<0): Work is done on the system

W   Fd s
Note that F and ds are vectors!

4
 Forms of Work
1. Electrical Work

2. Mechanical Work

i. Gravitational Work
ii. Acceleration Work
iii. Shaft Work
iv. Spring Work

v. Moving Boundary Work

@ Constant Volume, @ Constant Pressure, @ Constant Temperature, Polytropic Process

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 Electrical Work
Work done by passing a current through a resistance.

•
We = V.I (W)

where,
V : Voltage
I : Current, Ampere

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 Gravitational Work
Work done to move an object against the force of gravity.

W = ∫ F ds
F = mg downward
s=z upward

Therefore,
Wg = ∫mgdz z: elevation

= mg (z2 – z1) ( z 2 > z 1)

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 Acceleration Work
Work involved in increasing the linear speed of an object.
W = ∫ F ds
Since, F = ma = m dv/dt
& v = ds/dt, or ds = v dt

Therefore,
Wa = ∫m(dv/dt) vdt
= ∫mvdv
= m (v22 – v12)/2 (v2 > v1)
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 Shaft Work
Work involved in rotating a shaft against friction.

W = ∫ F ds = F ∫ds = (τ /r) ∫ r.d = 2 π τ ‘for a single rotation’

Or since torque τ = F r, or F = τ /r
s = 2 π r n, where, n is # revolutions

Therefore,
Wsh = (τ /r)(2 π r n) = 2 π n.τ (kJ)
• •
Wsh = 2 π n τ = ω .τ (kW)
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 Spring Work
Work involved in elongating or compressing a spring from rest position.

W = ∫ F ds
Since, F = k x for a linear spring
Take, s = x or, ds = dx

Therefore,
Wsp = ∫ kx dx
= k (x22 - x12)/2 (x2 > x1)

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 Moving Boundary Work
Work involved in moving the boundary of the space containing a gas either by
expanding or compressing the volume.

Gas

s s ds
s1 s2

(W>0): Work is done by the system (expansion)

(W<0): Work is done on the system (compression)

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W = ∫ F ds

Since, F = PA
Take, s = L or, ds = d L

Therefore, Wb = ∫ PA dL
Since, V = AL, then dV = A dL

Hence,
Wb = ∫ P dV

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A gas does a differential amount of work dWb as it forces the piston to
move by a differential amount ds.

Note: P is the pressure acting on the inner surface, but is

taken as the pressure of the system assuming the process
is quasi-equilibrium.

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The area under the process curve on a P-V
diagram represents the boundary work.

Note: The integral can be evaluated only if P=f(V)

In real applications:
Wact = ∫ P dV + ∫ (Ffriction + Patm.A) dx

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 What the Area in a PV Diagram
Represents
P
Process 2
Wb  1
P dV

Area

1 2 v

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 What the Area in a PV Diagram
Represents
The net work done during a cycle
is the difference between the WA=10 kJ

work done by the system and the WB=8 kJ

work done on the system.

Wnet=2 kJ

Remarks:

- Work depends on path and the

end states.

- For point functions:  dP  P1  P1  0

- For path functions:  W   PdV  0

- This enables a cycle to produce a net work since WA > WB

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 Example Problem- Work

For a piston-cylinder system, two paths are shown from point 1 to 2.

Compute the work in kJ done in going by path A (W A) and by path B
(WB).
P, kPa
1
300
A

150 b 2
B
0.05 0.15 V, m3

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 Boundary Work: Special Cases

@ Constant volume
Wb = ∫ P dV

if V = constant, then dV = 0

Therefore,
Wb = 0

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 Boundary Work: Special Cases

@ Constant Pressure (P = Po = constant )

Wb = ∫ P dV

Then,
A
kx/
Wb = Po (V2 – V1) =
F/A
P=
= Po V

Expansion of a gas
against spring

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 Boundary Work: Special Cases

@ Constant Temperature (To): Wb = ∫ P dV

For T= const. in Ideal gas law in a closed system

P1 V1 = P2 V2 = m R To = C

or, V = C/P & dV = -(C/P2) dP

Therefore,
Wb = - C ∫(1/P) dP = P1 V1 In (P1/P2)

or,
Wb = P1 V1 In (V2 / V1) = m R To ln(V2 / V1)

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 Boundary Work: Polytropic Process
Occurs during expansion and compression processes of real gases. Defined as PVn = C

Remember that, Wb = ∫ P dV

Since, P = C V-n ,
Therefore,
Wb = C ∫(V -n) dV

= [C/(1-n)] [V2 1-n – V1 1-n]

= [1/(1-n)] [V2 CV2 –n – V1C V1 –n] = (P2V2 – P1 V1)/(1-n)

For an ideal gas: Wb = m R (T2 - T1)/(1-n)

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 Finding Exponent of Polytropic
Process

Do you know how to use logarithms!

PVn= C

C
V n
=
P
C
n log V = log
P

C
log
P
n=
log V

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 Lines of Constant Processes on a P-v
diagram

P=C

T=C
V=C

v
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