Power System Protective

Relaying-Part One
 NATURE & CAUSES OF
FAULTS
•Insulation failure.
•Conducting path failure.
•Over voltages due to lightening or switching surges.
•Puncturing or breaking of insulators.
•Failure of conducting path due to broken conductors.
•Failure of solid insulation due to aging, heat,
moisture, overvoltage , accidental contact with earth
or earth screens,flash over voltages and etc.,
FAULT IN POWER SYSTEM
 A power system fault may be defined as any condition
or abnormality of the system which involves the
electrical failure of primary equipment such as
generators, transformers, busbars, overhead lines and
cables and all other items of plant which operate at
power system voltage.
 Electrical failure generally implies one or the other (or
both) of two types of failure, namely insulation failure
resulting in a short-circuit condition or conducting path
failure resulting inan open-circuit condition, the former
being by far the more common type of failure.
 Symmetrical fault
Faults giving rise to equal currents in lines displaced by
equal phase angles i.e 120o in three phase systems.
Example: short circuit of all three phase
conductors of a cable at a single location
 Unsymmetrical fault
Faults in which not all the line currents are equal and not all
have the same phase.
Example (any one): single phase line to ground fault (L-G),
two phase to ground (LL-G) fault and phase to phase (L-
L) fault.
Abnormalities in Power
Systems
 Overcurrent (overload, short circuit,
open circuit)
 Ground Potential (ungrounded
equipment, touch potentials, step
potentials)
 Surge Voltages (lightning strokes,
switching surges, harmonics)
 Power swings in power grids
Fault Types (Shunt)
Frequency of Types of
Faults
Frequency of Fault Occurrence
SYMMETRICAL FAULT

THREE- PHASE FAULT

THREE PHASE to EARTH

FAULT
UNSYMMETRICAL FAULT

PHASE – PHASE FAULT

TWO PHASE – EARTH FAULT

SINGLE PHASE – EARTH

FAULT
OPEN CIRCUIT FAULT

SINGLE- PHASE OPEN CIRCUIT

TWO- PHASE OPEN CIRCUIT

THREE- PHASE OPEN CIRCUIT

METHODS OF NEUTRAL
GROUNDING (EARTHING)

•Neutral Earthing/Grounding
•Peterson coil
•Arcing Grounds
The process of connecting the metallic frame (i.e. non-current carrying part) of electrical equipment or some
electrical part of the system to earth (i.e. soil) is called grounding or earthing.

 Grounding or earthing may be classified as :

(i) Equipment grounding
(ii) System grounding
Equipment Grounding
The process of connecting non-current-carrying
metal parts of the electrical equipment to earth.

System Grounding
The process of connecting some electrical part of the power system to earth (i.e. soil) is called system
grounding.
 Neutral Grounding
 Connecting neutral point to earth (i.e.
soil) either directly or some circuit
element (e.g. resistance, reactance ,
Peterson coil etc.) is called neutral
grounding.
 Neutral grounding provides protection to
equipment. (during earth fault, the
current path is completed neutral)
Advantages of Neutral Grounding

 Voltages of the healthy phases do not exceed line to

ground voltages i.e. they remain nearly constant.
 The high voltages due to arcing grounds are eliminated.
 Life of insulation is long.
 The over voltages is reduced.
 It provides greater safety to personnel and equipment.
 It provides improved service reliability.
 Operating and maintenance expenditures are reduced.
Methods of Neutral Grounding

 Solid or effective grounding

 Resistance grounding
 Reactance grounding
 Peterson-coil grounding
 Voltage transformer earthing
Solid or effective grounding
 When the neutral point of a 3-phase system is
directly connected to earth (i.e. soil) is called
solid grounding or effective grounding.
 When an earth fault occurs between earth and
any one phase , the voltage to earth of the
faulty phase becomes zero, but the healthy
phases remains at normal phase values.
 Resistance grounding

When the neutral point of a 3-phase system (e.g. 3-phase

generator, 3-phase transformer etc.) is connected to earth
(i.e. soil) through a resistor, it is called resistance grounding.
Advantages:
By adjusting the value of R, the arcing grounds can be
minimized.
It improves the stability
Less interference
Minimize hazards
 Reactance grounding

 In this system, a reactance is inserted between the neutral and ground

 The purpose of reactance is to limit the earth fault current.
Disadvantages :
(i) In this system, the fault current required to operate the protective device
is higher than that of resistance grounding for the same fault conditions.
(ii) High transient voltages appear under fault conditions.
Resonant grounding
(Peterson coil )
If inductance L of appropriate value is connected in
parallel with the capacitance of the system, the fault
current IF flowing through L will be in phase opposition to
the capacitive current IC of the system.
If L is so adjusted that
IL = IC
then resultant current in the fault will be zero. This
condition is known as Resonant Grounding.
When the value of L of arc suppression coil is such that
the fault current IF exactly balances the capacitive current
IC , it is called resonant grounding.
 An arc suppression coil (also called Peterson coil) is an iron-cored
coil connected between the neutral and earth.
 The reactor is provided with tappings to change the inductance of the
coil.
 By adjusting the tappings on the coil, the coil can be tuned with the
capacitance of the system i.e. resonant grounding can be achieved.
 Suppose line to ground fault occurs in the line B at point F. The
fault current IF and capacitive currents IR and IY will flow as
shown in Fig

 Note that IF flows through the Peterson coil (or Arc suppression
coil) to neutral and back through the fault. The total capacitive
current IC is the phasor sum of IR & IY as shown in phasor
diagram in Fig.
 The voltage of the faulty phase is applied across the arc
suppression coil. Therefore, fault current IF lags the faulty phase
voltage by 90°.
 The current IF is in phase opposition to capacitive current IC [See
Fig].
By adjusting the tappings on the Peterson coil, the resultant
current in the fault can be reduced. If inductance of the coil is so
adjusted that IL= IC , then resultant current in the fault will be
zero.
Voltage Transformer Earthing
 In this method of neutral earthing , the primary
of a single-phase voltage transformer is
connected between the neutral and the earth as
shown in Fig
 A low resistor in series with a relay is
connected across the secondary of the voltage
transformer. The voltage transformer provides a
high reactance in the neutral earthing circuit
and operates virtually as an ungrounded neutral
system.
Advantages:
Arcing grounds are reduced.
Transient overvoltage are reduced
Introduction
 Nature Cause
Introduction
 Equipment Failure
Introduction
 Human Error
Introduction
 Relay:an electric device that is
designed to respond to input
conditions in a prescribed manner
and , after specified conditions are
met, to cause contact operation or
similar abrupt change in associated
electric control circuits. (IEEE)
Introduction
 Protective Relay:A relay whose
function is to detect defective lines
or apparatus or other power system
conditions of an abnormal or
dangerous nature and to initiate
appropriate control circuit action.
(IEEE)
Typical Protective Relays
Portable Protective Relay Test
Equipment
Typical Power Circuit Breakers
Typical Power Circuit Breakers
Sample Device Numbers
 Master element: 1
 Time-delay starting or closing relay: 2
 Distance relay: 21
 Directional power relay: 32
 Instantaneous overcurrent relay: 50
 AC time overcurrent relay: 51
 AC directional overcurrent relay: 67
 Frequency relay: 81
 Differential protective relay: 87
Typical Relay and Circuit
Breaker Connections
 Typical single line AC connection
Typical Relay and Circuit
Breaker Connections
 Protective relays using electrical quantities are connected to the
power system through CT or voltage transformer (VT). These input
devices or instrument transformers provide insulation from the
high-power system voltages and reduce the magnitudes to
practical secondary levels for the relays. As an important element
of the protection system.In circuit schematics and diagrams, they
are represented as shown in the Figure. This diagram shows a
typical one-line AC schematic and a DC trip circuit schematic.

 The protective relay system is connected to the AC power system

through the CTs commonly associated with the circuit breaker
and, if necessary, to the VTs. These are shown connected to the
station AC bus, but often at the higher voltages, the voltage
devices are connected to the transmission line. The circuit
breaker is designated as device 52 following the ANSI/IEEE device
number system (IEEE C37.2, 2008).
 In the DC schematic, the contacts are always shown in their de-
energized position. Thus, when the circuit breaker is closed and in
service, its 52a contact is closed. When a system fault operates
the protective relay, its output contact closes to energize the
circuit breaker trip coil 52T, which functions to open the breaker
main contacts and de-energize the connected power circuit.

 The electromechanical relay contacts basically are not designed

to interrupt the circuit breaker trip coil current, so an auxiliary DC-
operated unit-designated contactor switch (CS) was used to seal
in or bypass the protective relay contacts as shown. When the
circuit breaker opens, the 52a switch will open to de-energize the
trip coil 52T. The interruption of the fault by the circuit breaker will
have opened the protective relay contacts before the 52a contact
opens. This CS unit is not required with solidstate relays.
Typical Relay and Circuit
Breaker Connections
 Typical three-phase AC connection
 Typical three-phase AC connections
of a set of phase and ground relays
for the protection of an AC power
system. The relays may be separate,
as shown, or combined together in
one unit.
Basic Requirements of System
Protection
 Sensitivity
 Reliability
 Selectivity
 Speed of Operation
 Simplicity
 Economics
 Back-up Protection
Basic Requirements of System
Protection
 Sensitivity is the ability of the protection system
to detect even the smallest faults within the
protected zone. It is important to ensure the
detection of high-impedance faults or the
reduced contribution to faults from small,
dispersed generators.

 Reliability is the ability of a protection system to

operate correctly. A reliable system is one that
trips when required (dependability) but does
not trip when not required (security).
Basic Requirements of System
Protection
 Selectivity is the ability of a protection system to eliminate a fault
in the shortest possible time with the least disconnection of
system components. We also use the term coordination for
selectivity. Protection coordination implies that primary
protection eliminates the faults, and that backup protection
operates only when primary protection fails. We also call
coordination the process a protection engineer uses in
calculating relay settings.
 Selectivity can be achieved by the following methods:
– Time grading
– Current grading
– Time-current grading
– Time-impedance grading
– Amplitude or (and) Phase comparison
– Determination of the direction of fault power flow
Basic Requirements of System
Protection
 Speed is the ability of the protection system to operate in
a short time after fault inception. This is important in
preserving system stability, reducing equipment damage,
and improving power quality. Relaying system operation
time includes relay and breaker operation time.
 We typically measure relaying system operation time in
cycles (periods of the power system frequency (1 cycle =
16.67 ms)). Breaker operation times are from 2 cycles to 8
cycles. Instantaneous relay operating times are about 1
cycle. For example, a 1-cycle relay and a 2-cycle breaker
provide a fault clearing time of 3 cycles (about 50 ms).
Basic Requirements of System
Protection
 Simplicity: Minimum protective equipment and associated
circuitry to achieve the protection objectives. It is very important
to keep the protection as simple as possible. Complexity is a
very common cause of human errors leading to protection
operation problems.
 Economics: Maximum protection at minimal total cost.
Economics is always an important factor. In the case of
protection, an investment decision should take into account the
cost of the protected equipment and the cost of a power system
collapse. In this sense, protection is like insurance: we need to
define the level of protection and the protection cost according
to the economic loss that the protection system may prevent.
 Back-up protection permits the protection system to
completely isolate a faulted element.
Factors Affecting the Protection
System
 Economics
 Personality (Relay engineer)
 Location of Disconnecting and Input
Devices
 Available Fault Indicators
Factors Affecting the Protection
System
 Economics is a very important factor.

 The human factor plays an important role also in protection. The relay
engineer faces a big challenge: the system is becoming more complex
and the protection equipment is accordingly more sophisticated. We
need to train protection engineers on a regular basis to face this
challenge. Protection systems are not only relays. Breakers, current
and voltage transducers, and other protection system elements are
important also.

 Present protection technology includes digital fault recorders and

recording functions available in digital relays. The information these
devices gather during system faults and abnormal condition is very
important to understanding power system behavior and evaluating the
protection system functionality. It is very important to analyze this
information on a regular basis in protection organizations.
Classification of Relays
 Protective Relays
 Regulating Relays
 Reclosing, Synchronism Check, and
Synchronizing Relays
 Monitoring Relays
 Auxiliary Relays
 Others
Classification of Relays
 We can classify relays in several different ways, including
function, type of design, input information, and others. In a
classification by function, we may include protective, regulating,
reclosing and synchronism check, and monitoring relays. We
could include auxiliary relays as an additional category.
 According to IEEE 100, a protective relay has the function of
detecting defective lines or apparatus or other abnormal power
system conditions and then initiating an appropriate control
circuit action.
 Regulating relays, for example, perform control functions during
normal operation conditions. Examples of regulating relays
include generator voltage control elements and control of
transformer tap changers.
 Reclosing (79), synchronism check (25), and automatic
synchronizing relays form a separate category of relays.
Classification of Relays
 Monitoring relays are intended to issue a signal, instead of
tripping a circuit breaker. A voltage check relay is an example of
a monitoring relay.
 Auxiliary relays perform several different auxiliary functions in
protection systems. Auxiliary relays operate instantaneously or
with small time delay. They have multiple contacts for tripping,
alarm and data acquisition. They hold larger currents to
energize trip circuits. ARs isolate the secondary circuits.
 We may classify protective relays by:
– Input information into current, voltage, power, frequency, and
temperature relays.
– Operating principle: Electromechanical relays, Static (solid state)
relays and Digital relays
– Performance characteristics, overcurrent, overvoltage and
undervoltage, directional, distance, and differential relays….
Protective Relay Performance
 Since many relays near the trouble area
may begin to operate for any given fault, it
is difficult to completely evaluate an
individual relay’s performance.
 Performance can be categorized as
follows:
– Correct: (a) As planned or (b) Not as planned
or expected.
– Incorrect: (a) Fail to trip or (b) False tripping
– No conclusion
Protective Relay Performance
 Protection systems are intended to trip when there is a fault or an
abnormal condition in the protected element and not trip during normal
operation conditions or external faults (unless the primary protection of
the adjacent faulted element fails to trip.)
 A correct protection operation is a trip when required or a no trip
condition when there is no fault or adnormal condition. Note that
protection systems are most often monitoring a normally operating
system. During most of the life of the system, the system is in a correct
no-operation condition.
 Incorrect operations include two possible deviations from the correct
state. A failure to trip is a lack of trip when required. A false trip or
misoperation is a protection operation that occurs when the protected
element is healthy. Such an operation could occur during normal
operation conditions or, more frequently, during external faults or other
system disturbances such as power swings.
 No conclusion refers to circumstances during which one or more relays
have or appear to have operated, such as the circuit breaker tripping,
but no cause can be found.
Basic Structure of Power System
Protection
Basic Structure of Power System
Protection
 This figure shows the flow of information
between the protected unit and the individual
links of the protection chain.
 The main protection elements are:
– Current and Voltage Transducers
– Protective Relays
– Circuit Breakers
– Communications Channels
– DC Supply System
– Control Cables
– Display and recording elements
Principles of Relay Application
 The power system is divided into protection
zones defined by the equipment and available
circuit breakers. Six possible protection zones
are listed below:
– Generators and generator-transformer units
– Transformers
– Buses
– Lines (Transmission, subtransmission, and distribution)
– Utilization equipment
– Capacitor or reactor banks
Principles of Relay Application
 Typical relay primary protection zones
Principles of Relay Application
 Overlapping protection zones
Information for Application
 One line diagram and system
configuration
 Impedance and connection of the power
equipment, system frequency, system
voltage, and system phase sequence
 Existing protection and problems
 Operating procedure and Practices
 Importance of the system equipment
being protected
Information for Application
 System fault study
 Maximum loads and system swing limits
 Current and voltage transformer locations,
connections, and ratios
 Future expansion