UNIT FIVE

politics, economy & social processes from the early 16th - end of
18th c
 Conflict b/n Christian Kingdom & Sultanate of Adal

What was the cause b/n Christian-sultanate of Adal conflict?

The restoration of long-distance trade & struggle to control trade routes.
exploitation of boundary made military mobilization possible, while religion
provided ideological justification for the wars.
Consequently, military mobilization begun in 1520s, as Imam Ahmed Ibrahim
al-Ghazi took leadership over Sultanate of Adal.
With increased population & overgrazing in Somali & Afar, in eastern
Ethiopia, raiding & counter-raiding at water holes intensified.
 Battle of Shimbrakure (1529)
Christian army was defeated at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near
present day Mojo.
 Then, the Imam’s army made a large-scale control of the territories of the
Christian Kingdom including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, & moved as far north as
Mereb Melash.
 By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire extended from Zeila to Massawa on the coast
including the Ethiopian interior.
 While, the Christian military power set back forced Lebne Dengel to retreat
finally, last in 1540 as a runaway .
 Cont’…d
Gelawdewos (the son of Lebne Dengil), continued to face the wars
with more concentration.
 He, acquired about 400 Portuguese soldiers in 1541.

 The force was led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest son of

Vasco da Gama (a famous sailor).
 But in 1542 the Christian army was defeated at Ofla, southern
Tigray.
 Battle of Woyna Dega (1543)
 A violent & final battle was fought on 1543 at Woyna-Dega, near lake Tana,
where the Imam was killed.
• Then after, Gelawdewos restored many of the pre-1520s territories. But, control
over Muslim dominated areas was not an easy.
Challenges to Christian state came from Sultanate of Adal, the Ottoman
Turks,.
The Sultanate of Adal, under the leadership of Emir Nur Mujahid was ready
to wage war against the Christian state & his force confronted & killed
Gelawdewos in 1559.
 Cont’…d
 Minas, the successor of Gelawdewos
 defeated the Turks' force & cultivated territories in the coast including Dabarwa.
 Sartsa-Dengle:-
 defended his territory from the Turks while fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-
Israel, Sidama, Enarya & Oromo.
 Consequently, the war had global dimension.
Effects of the conflict
 loss of military & civilian life & destruction of material property
 Both Sultanate of Adal & the Christian Kingdom were weakened,
 existing the way easy for penetration & success of the population movement.
 distribution of people, Cultural combination & integration across various linguistic &
religious groups.
 Foreign Intervention & Religious Controversies

 Portugal & Ottoman Turks competed for supremacy over the Red Sea & the
Indian Ocean.
 Ottomans:- to counter the Portuguese encroachment into the East, while
Portugal looked toward the Christian Kingdom as an assistant, reviving the
old "semi-spiritual quest" for Prester John.
 Christian Kingdom wanted alliance with Roman Catholicism as a method to
secure its internal & external threats. & sufficient modern weapons &
training.
Jesuits in Ethiopia
 Jesuit missionaries came to Ethiopia in 1557.
 Members of the mission were Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo (bishop),
Pedro Paez a &Alfonso Mendez.
 Cont’..d
• They promoted Catholicism, but some elements of teaching that
contradicted with teaching of Orthodox Church.
 Suseniyos
Missionaries got relative success with Susenyos, b/c he was challenged by
local leaders who refused to pay tribute.
To secure military & technical assistance Susenyos wanted for an alliance,
which he got through the diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez. .
 Cont’…d
Finally, He converted to Catholicism in 1612 & declared Catholicism as state
religion in 1622.
This caused b/n Suseniyos & anti Catholic voices & led to revolts among the
priest & the nobility.
As a result a large number of peasants lost their lives in 1632.
Fasiledas (1632-1667)
Fasiledas abdicated his father Suseniyos from throne & restored the position of
Orthodox Church as the state religion, disqualified the Jesuits & punished
local converts.
He introduced a “closed-door” policy, which isolated country from all
Europeans for a century & a half.
 Cont’…d
He adopted a policy of close diplomatic relations with Islamic world & formed
an alliance with neighboring Muslim states.
• He concluded an agreement with the Ottoman Pashas at Suakin & Massawa in
1647.
 Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained effective until the
beginning of 19th C, with exception of secret visits by a French Doctor Charles
Jacques Poncet (1700) & Scottish traveler James Bruce (1769)
Jesuit intervention initiated doctrinal divisions & controversy within the EOC
that was divided into disputant sects & reached its peak during the Zemene
Mesafint.
 Population Movements
 Population movement shaped the history of Ethiopia & Horn.
• People moved from place to place due to pull & push factors, which can be
natural and social.
• Military conflicts, drought & demographic pressure, search for resources &
better living environment
• Population movements led to combination & integration of peoples across
ethnic & religious lines.
Population Movements Argoba, Afar, & Somali
 Environmental pressure, example the military conflict b/n Christian Kingdom
& Sultanate of Adal were responsible for the population movement of the
Argoba, Afar & Somali.
 The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
 Natural factors:- demographic pressure & need for land to accommodate
growing human & livestock population.
 Christian Kingdom & Muslim Sultanates conflict caused pastoral Oromo groups
to leave the lands they inhabited for other areas.
 Oromo forces took northern direction & passed through a corridor b/n Mount
Walabu & Lake Abbaya.
When they reached half way b/n Lakes Abbaya & Hawassa, they took westward
& penetrated across the Bilatte River to the southwest.
 The Gondarine Period & Zemene-Mesafint
The Gondarine Period
A. Political Developments
Begun from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle when the political center of
Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar area.
 Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in 1571.
 Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar at places
like:- Gorgora, Danqaz & Azazo.
 Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established his political seat
there.
Among the major reforms during these periods were:
o The restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion, &
o The establishment of a royal prison
o Close Door Policy
 Major Achievements of Gondar
 Due to its cultural development, Gonderine period is considered as

“Ethiopian renaissance” among some writers. Some of its achievements

include:
 Architecture: secular and religious buildings of various sizes and shapes
and bridges.
Painting: the production of a wealth of religious paintings
Literature: education and liturgical chanting
Trade & urbanization: at the period Gonder was a town where active trade
 The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
Zemene-Mesafint:- to the period when actual position of political power was in
the hands of different regional lords.
 Started from assassination of king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu was
crowned as Emperor Tewodros II.
The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were Tigray,
Semen, Dembiya, Begemdir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa.
The period came to an end as Kasa Hailu of Qwara fought and defeated
powerful regional lords in a series of battles that lasted from 1840s to 1855.
Major features of the Zemene-Mesafint were:
 absence of effective central government;
 the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia;
 UNIT SIX
Internal developments & external relations of Ethiopia & Horn, 1800-
1941
 The Gibe States
In 19th C, several monarchical states emerged among the Mecha Oromo at the
expense of the Gadaa system. Many factors accounted for the transformation of
the Gada system.
• Limmu-Enarya: Limmu-Enarya was the earliest of the Gibe states. It was
founded through the incorporation of Enarya.
• Gumma: Jilcha Abba Bal’oo of Chira killed Sarbaroda of Dagoye clan; began
state formation (1810-1830) who was in turn followed by Jawwe (1840-1854).
• Gomma: formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829) who was succeeded by his son
Abba Manoo (1829-1840) who occupied Qattuu & converted to Islam by Muslim
Ulama/scholars.
• .Jimma: Towards the late eighteenth century, emerged as an influential female
figure among the Sadacha Mecha Oromo of Jimma. The local Abba Dula
sought to take political power from her.
• Gera: was the last of the Gibe kingdoms to be formed. The process of state
formation in Gera was completed during the reign of Tullu Gunji (r.1835-38), a
successful war leader who made himself king.
 The Leqa States
.
 Mecha Oromo of Wallaggas:- Leqa states, the Sibu & the Jawwi south of the
Abbay River.
I. Leqa-Naqamte: was founded by Bakare Godana in 1840, and reached its
height under his successors Moroda and Kumsa.
II. Leqa-Qellam: was located in southwestern Wallagga. It was founded by Tullu
& became powerful under his son, Jote being centered at Gidami &
controlling the areas around Sayyo-Dambi Dollo.
 Nilotic Sheikdoms
 In the early 19th c, important Islamic centre emerged in the lower course of
the Abbay.
 A number of Shiekdoms were established through parallel imposition of
Arabic-speaking Sudanese mercantilists over Berta and Gumuz
inhabitants.
 Among them, the Sheikhdoms of Assosa, Bela Shangul & Khomosha were
established to the south of Abbay River.
 The influence of Islam from the Sudan & cross border trade was the main
reasons for the rise of these states.
 The rich gold of the region also attracted foreign powers like the Egyptians
& Mahdists who attempted to control the sheikdoms at different times.
 Trade &Trade Routes (19th C )
 Trade routes which linked SW Ethiopia to the coast had medieval
antecedents, but it was in 19th that they attained particular prominence.
Because, there was revival of external trade in the Red Sea region.
 Trade became one means of maintaining strong relations across peoples of
different areas & backgrounds.
 Two main trade lines linked various territories of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 1st line:- Bonga, the capital of Kafa Kingdom, linked peoples & states of the
southwestern Ethiopia with the northern part of the Ethiopian region.
 2nd major trade route also began from Bonga - in southwest Shewa.
 The Making of Modern Ethiopian State
 In 19th C, several states that emerged were involved in territorial competition not
only to extend control over resources but also for state building.
 The making of the modern Ethiopian state went through two distinct phases.
 The first one involved unifying different regions and peoples in north and
north central parts of Ethiopia.
 The second phase involved territorial expansion into the southern parts of the
country.
The Process of Territorial Unification
 The territorial unification ushered in a revival of the imperial power, which had
declined during the Zemene-Mesafint.
 This occurred after a series of battles human and material losses.
 Territorial Expansion
 Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV & others made state building their
mission and struggled to achieve that goal.
• The control of resource rich areas that enabled the emperor to build military
muscle as well as the determination of his generals counted for his successes.
 The process of territorial expansion by Menilek can be discussed in different
phases i.e. when he was king of Shewa (1865-89), from 1889-96 and the
aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900).
 This territorial expansions intensified by the cause great famine or Kifu Qen
of 1888-92 & it also expanded to parts of southern Ethiopia.
 Modernization Attempts
 The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed efforts to adopt western ideas and
technology by Ethiopian monarchs.
 Although several Ethiopian regional rulers were interested in European
technologies, Emperor Tewodros had relatively better information/contact
about western technologies than his predecessors.
 He was well aware of the importance of European technologies to transform his
people and country.
• As a monarch, Tewodros took a number of military, administrative & socio-
economic reform measures.
• As regards the army, Tewodros introduced military titles, like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa
Aleqa, & Yeshi Aleqa.
 Cont’d
 Modernization attempts of the reign of Emperor Menilek had diverse elements.
The post-Adwa period was marked by the establishment of a
 postal service and telecommunications/
 the telephone-telegraph system,
 the construction of railway line from Djibouti to Addis
 the opening of a bank and the introduction of silver coin. terms of
administration, the emperor introduced European style ministerial system/
ministers in 1907.
 During the Dual Rule of Empress Zewditu & Ras Teferi (r. 1916-1930), there were
several modernization attempts in broader scope. The two rulers namely
 Ras Teferi and Empress Zewditu had different views towards western culture.
 Socio-Economic Developments

 The period from 1800 to 1941 was also marked by changes in socio-economic
conditions including trade, slavery & slave trade, agriculture, urbanization
and manufacturing.
 Factors for these changes included the socio-economic dynamics in the region
and the world.
 The 19th & 20th centuries were times when agricultural economy grew & the
demand for land for cultivation & grazing increased.
 Slavery &Slave Trade
 Slavery and slave trade had long history in Ethiopia and the Horn. Most slaves
in Ethiopia were kept as domestic slaves
some were sold to Egypt
the Middle East
 the Ottoman Empire through the Sudan, the Red Sea & the Gulf of Aden
ports.
 During the 19th centuries, slave trade expanded in Ethiopia & the Horn due to
increased demand for slaves in foreign markets largely in the Middle East.
 This was followed by the emergence of market centers from Bonga to Metemma
& Massawa.
 Emperors Tewodros II, Yohannes IV & Menilek II tried to stop the slave trade
although not slavery itself.
 Manufacturing

 In many cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn, there were age-old indigenous ways
of producing/making tools. Such manufacturing activities involved simple
procedures and techniques and produced limited quantity of items.
 One result of the contact with the industrialized world from the mid 19 th
century was the introduction of manufacturing technologies.
Urbanization
 The period from the early 19th c to 194l marked the evolution of towns stemming
from political, socio-economic, demographic & ecological factors.
 During the period, the expansion of both local & long distance trade since the
early 19th c had transformed old markets & socio-political centers into towns in
Ethiopia & the Horn.
 External agreement & treaties
 In terms of diplomatic relations & repulsing external threats, Emperor Menilek
II was more successful through maintaining the balance among powerful forces
of the period.
 While he was king of Shewa, he established commercial relation with Italy that
later helped him to acquire military equipment.
 Menelik’s relations with Italy reached its climax with the signing of the Wuchale
Treaty.
 International politics of 20th C also shaped Ethiopia’s foreign relations. For
instance, during the IWW (1914-18) Lij Iyasu showed a tendency to side with the
Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary, & Ottoman Empire) believing that
the defeat of the Allied powers (France and Britain) would allow Ethiopia to
push Italy out of Eritrea and Somalia.
 One of the successes of Ethiopia’s foreign relation in the early 20 th c was her
admission to the League of Nations in 1923. A year later, Teferi made his grand
European tour, which shaped his ideas of modernization.
Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors & Patriotism
 The Battle of Dabarki (1848 :Dabarki was fought b/n Kasa Hailu of Qwara &
Egyptian forces in 1848. Although the forces led by Kasa Hailu lost the battle,
due to the military imbalance. This later initiated him to widen his vision &
mission when he became emperor.
 The Battle of Maqdela (1868): Tewodros imprisoned Captain Cameron & other
British Europeans.
 On April 10, 1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros’ soldiers including his general Gebriye
were fight & defeated by the British at the battle of Aroge. On April 13, 1868,
Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdela.
 Battles of Gundet &Gura
In 1875, Khedive Ismail Pasha sent his troops to invade Ethiopia in three directions.
e two batteles were conducted b/n Egypt & Ethiopia during the period of Yhoansis IV.
Ethiopia, led about 500 Egyptian troops equipped with cannons & rocket tubes.
 Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula mobilized about 20,000 forces & encountered
the Egyptians at the Battle of Gundet (16 November 1875) where the Egyptian
troopswere severely defeated.
Egyptians again reorganized their forces & sent their army to invade Ethiopia.
However, the Ethiopian forces again defeated them at the Battle of Gura (7–9 March,
1876).
 Cont’…d
 The Battle of Dogali :During the late 19th c , Europeans had interest to control the
Red Sea area.
 In 1885, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from Egypt to Italy. By using these
bases as springboard, Italy began to penetrate into northern
 Ethiopia. Subsequently, the Italian forces occupied Sa’ati, Aylet & Wia in the then
Mereb Milash region.
 However, they were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by Ras Alula Engida.

 Following this battle, Italy signed a Treaty of Neutrality with Menilek in October
1887 in a bid to isolate Emperor Yohannes.
 Cont’… d
 The Battle of Metemma :the Hewett Treaty caused clashes between the Mahdist
& Ethiopian forces that lasted from 1885 to 1889.
 The first clash was at Kufit b/n Ras Alula and Uthman Digna in September
1885. Initially, the Ethiopian force was victorious.
In January 1887, Yohannes ordered Nigus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam to
repulse the Mahdists. Emperor Yohannes faced what can be called a triangular
tension, namely the Italians in the north, the Mahdists in the west & northwest, &
his two vassals in the center.
In another direction, the Mahdists were defeated at Gute Dilli (in Najjo-
Wallagga) by Menilek's commander Ras Gobana Dache on October 14, 1888.
Emperor Yohannes made a national call:
የኢትዮጵያ ህዝብ ሆይ ኢትዮጵያ የተባለችዉ ሀገር: 1ኛ
እናትህ ናት፤ 2ኛ ክብርህ ናት፤ 3ኛ ሚስትህ ናት፤4ኛ ልጅህ
ናት፤5ኛ መቃብርህ ናት። እንግዲህ የእናትን ፍቅር፣
የዘዉድን ክብር፣የሚስትን የዋህነት፣ የልጅን
ደስታ፣ የመቃብርን ከከባቲነት አስበህ ተነስ!
on March 9, 1889, the Emperor marched to Metemma where he died fighting
the Mahdists.
Evidently, it has to be noted here that internal divisions & acrimonies among
rulers would result in a huge cost to the country & its people.
 The Battle of Adwa & Its Aftermath
 The disagreement on the Wuchale Treaty finally led to the big battle b/n
Ethiopia and Italian forces.
 Following Emperor Menilek's proclamation for general mobilization, about
100,000 troops from every part of the country gathered at Wara-Illu (in today’s
South Wollo).
 In January 1896 under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, the Ethiopian forces
defeated Italians at Mekelle.
 A month later, Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Menilek, Empress Taiytu & war
generals like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha & Negus
Tekle-Haymanot and others encountered the Italians at Adwa.
 The result of this battle was a decisive victory for Ethiopians but a huge blow to
the Italians, which doomed their colonial ambition over Ethiopia.
 Cont’…d

 Consequently, Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia by the treaty of

Addis Ababa that was signed on October 26, 1896.
Italian Occupation (1936-41) & the Patriotic Resistance
Background
 Following their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the Italians suspended their
expansionist colonial policy in Northeast Africa for a short time.
 However, they were just waiting for the right time to fulfill their ambitions in
any possible way.
 Italy eventually got its ideological strength in 1922, when Fascists led by Benito
Mussolini held power.
The Fascists were determined to restore the power & glory of ancient Roman
Empire by avenging Italy’s shameful scar at Adwa.
The 1935 Invasion & After
After they completed their preparations, the Italians waged their aggression via
two major fronts: the northern & the southern Front.
The war was started in the northern Front when the Italians crossed the Mereb
River on October 3, 1935 & launched a three pronged invasion & controlled
Adigrat, Adwa & Mekelle.
In January 1936, the Ethiopian counter offensive force marched north through
three fronts.
Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie led the western front, Ras Kasa Hailu, Ras Seyum
Mengesha led the central front, & Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (War Minister) led the
eastern front.
 Cont’…d
 On January 20, 1936, the Ethiopian army launched a major offensive against the
Italians intending to isolate Mekelle, but failed to realize its objective due to lack
of coordination
 among the above-mentioned commanders. On January 24, the Ethiopian force
lost to the Italians at the first Battle in Temben.
The Patriotic Resistance Movement
 The five-year Italian occupation (1936-41) was not a smooth experience. Rather,
the Ethiopian peoples opposed them in a number of ways.
 Among others, the patriots gave them hard times largely in rural areas. They
continuously harassed them.
 Ethiopian patriots continued their resistance in almost all regions & by all
ethnic groups of the empire with varying degree of intensification
 Cont’…d
 The first phase of resistance was the continuation of the war itself. Among the
highlights of this phase was the resistance waged by three commanders of the
Southern Front, Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Beyene Merid &Dejjach Gebre
Maryam Gari. An extension of this phase was a five pronged assault on the
capital in the summer of 1936.
 The campaign involved two sons of Ras Kasa Hailu (Asfawesen & Aberra), the
veteran of Adwa Dejjach Balcha Safo, Balambaras (later Ras) Abebe
Aregay, & Dejjach Fikre-Mariam Yinnnadu.
 The second phase covers from 1937 to the end of the Italian occupation in 1941.
On 19 February 1937, two young Ethiopian patriots, Abreha Deboch & Moges
Asgedom, hurled a bomb at Graziani in the Genete-Le’ul palace compound at
Sidist Kilo, wounding him seriously and killing some others.
 Cont’…d

 list a few patriots that we think can represent different parts of Ethiopia.
Dejjazmach Umar Samatar, Colonel Abdisa Aga, Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke,
Dejjazmach Gebrehiwot Meshesha, Dejjazmach Abbbai Kahsay, Woizero
Shewareged Gedle, Zeray Dires, Colonel Jagama Kello, Woizero Sinidu Gebru,
THE END!!!