AERO/MAAE 2001

Aerospace/Engineering Graphical Design

Sections B and C
Lecture 3
Manual Drafting & Geometric
Construction, Sketching,
Orthographic Projection
Professor Henry Saari
Department of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering
Protractor and Compass

Measuring Angles
Angles can be measured using
semicircular protractors

Using a compass
Adjust the pencil point to be the
same length as the compass
point.
Sharpen the lead from the outside
with a sandpaper pad.
Lightly pierce the paper with the
compass point at the center of the
circle and swing the compass
around the center by turning the
handle between thumb and index
fingers
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 30o-60o Triangles
A triangle with interior angles of
30º and 60º can be used to
construct:

Perpendicular lines
Lines at 30º intervals;

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 45o-90o Triangles
A triangle with interior angles of
45º and 90º can be used to
construct:

Perpendicular lines
Lines at 45º intervals;

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 (6)

Constructing Lines at 15o and 75o Intervals

By using a 30º-60º triangle in
combination with a 45º triangle,
angles can be drawn at 15º
intervals

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 Basic Shapes: Circles
A circle is constructed by sweeping a fixed centered radius through 360 o

Elements of a circle and their definition

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 Spheres

Great circle obtained by

intersecting sphere with a
plane on the sphere centre

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 Cylinders

Cylindrical
Surface

Oblique Cylinder Right Cylinder

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 Cones

Oblique Cone Right Cone

Truncated Cone Frustum Cone Conical Surface

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 Regular Polyhedrons I
Regular polyhedron are solids bound by plane regular polygons. Only five of these bodies
can exist

Octahedron Cube Tetrahedron

8 Triangles 6 Squares 4 Triangles

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 Regular Polyhedrons II

Icosahedron Dodecahedron
20 Triangles 12 Pentagons

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 Prisms
Prisms have two parallel bases of equal shape with sides that are parallelograms.

Right Prism

Truncated Prism

Oblique Pentagonal Prism Hexagonal Prism

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 Parallelepipeds
Parallelepipeds are prisms with bases that are rectangles or parallelograms.

Cube, faces are

squares Oblique, faces are
rhombi

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 Pyramids

Truncated
Pyramid
Frustum
Pentagonal
Pyramid
Regular
Hexagonal
Pyramid

Oblique Pyramid
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 (6)

Constructions: Parallel Lines

Compass method
Step 1 Swing two arcs of equal radius
from line AB.
Step 2 Draw the parallel line tangent
to the arcs.

Triangle method
Step 1 Draw a line
perpendicular to AB
Step 2 Measure the
desired distance, R,
along the perpendi-
cular and draw the
parallel line through it.

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 (6)

Constructions: Triangles
A triangle can be constructed by triangulation with a compass when three sides are given.

Step 1 Draw line AB

Step 2 Draw an arc with radius

BC around B

Step 3 Draw an arc with radius

AC around A

Step 4 Draw AC and BC

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 (5)

Constructions: Bisecting Lines & Angles

Bisecting an angle

Step 1 Swing an arc R1 to locate points D and E

Step 2 Draw equal arcs from D and E to locate point O. Line AO is

the bisector of the angle.

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 (7)

Constructions: Bisecting Lines & Angles

Bisecting a line

Method 1 Use a compass and any Method 2 Use a standard triangle

radius. and a straightedge.

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 (7)

Constructions Requiring Bisection

Three distinct points, not all on one line, uniquely define a circle. Given three
such points, construct the circle.

An arc through three points

Step 1 Connect points A, B and D with two
lines and construct their perpendicular
bisectors that intersect at the center, C.
Step 2 Using the Center, C, and the distance
to the points as the radius, draw the arc
through the points

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 (4)

Tangents
A tangent is the point where a line meets a curve, or two different curves join
without crossing.

Locating a tangent point

Step 1 Align a triangle with the tangent
line while holding it against a firmly held
straightedge.
Step 2 Hold the triangle in position,
locate a second triangle perpendicular to
it and draw a line from the center to
locate the tangent point

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 Tangents
Arc-arc
Use thin, black lines that
extend from the centers
slightly beyond the arcs
to mark tangency points

A. Center to center B. Center to center

C. Use center lines when 90º apart D. Perpendiculars to tangent lines

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 (3)

Tangents
A tangent to an arc from a point

Step 1 Hold a triangle against a straightedge and draw a line from point
A that is tangent to the arc.
Step 2 Rotate your triangle 90º and locate the point of tangency by
drawing a line through center B.

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 (7)

Tangents
A line tangent to an arc from a point

Step 1 Connect point A with the center of

the circle at point B.

Step 2 locate point M by bisecting AB.

Step 3 Using point M as the center and MB

as the radius, draw an arc intersecting with
the circle.

Step 4 locate points T at the intersections of

Arc and circle and draw a line AT tangent to
the circle.

Step 5 Draw the Tangent marker BT

perpendicular to the tangent AT

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 Freehand Sketching
• Sketching is a fast, efficient way to draw without the use of drafting
instruments (or computer)
• It is as important to design thinking and problem solving as it is to
communication
• Many freehand sketches are made while developing ideas and solutions
• Many new products began as sketches made on the back of an envelope,
or a napkin at lunch
• See ECOR1054 slides for a review of techniques

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Types of Sketches

Bertoline, Introduction to Graphics Communications for Engineers

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 Axonometric Sketching

• Axonometric projection
uses parallel projectors
(orthogonal projection),
but it shows more than one
face of the object
• The scale in the directions
of the 3 principal axes are
all different.

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 Isometric Sketching
• The x-, y- and z-axes have
the same metric: a unit (say, a
centimetre) along the x-axis
is equally long along the y-
and z-axes
• In a rendered wire frame
cube, all edges in the 2D
picture are equally long
• The projected cube is also
symmetric. All sides are
rhombuses (a rhombus is a
parallelogram with sides that
are equal in length)

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 Isometric Sketching

Bertoline, Introduction to Graphics Communications for Engineers

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 Orthographic Projection
• Six principal views can be drawn in orthographic projection
• Imagine a glass box with the views projected onto its six planes

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 Orthographic Projection
• Opening the box into a single plane (the front plane) gives
the six views

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 First-Angle Orthographic Projection

First-Angle Projection
• The object is placed in the first
quadrant and viewed from the first
• The object is between the observer
and projection planes
• Used in most of the world
• The top view is placed below the
front view. The right-side view is to
the left of the front view

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 Orthographic Projection
• The principal plane folding lines are generally not shown in a
multi-view technical drawing, unlike a DG drawing
Note: this drawing is in
Front view Left view
first-angle projection

Top view

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 Orthographic Projection

• We use third-angle projection

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Orthographic Sketching

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Orthographic Sketching

Bertoline, Introduction to Graphics Communications for Engineers

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 Orthographic Sketching

Bertoline, Introduction to Graphics Communications for Engineers

Bertoline, Introduction to Graphics Communications for Engineers

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 Shape Description
• An angle mounting bracket is a simple 3D object, until you try to
describe it in an unambiguous way
• Using words, the task approaches impossible
• Using descriptive geometry it is trivial
• However, for engineering drawings some more conventions must be used

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 Shape Description
• Technical drawings are a specialized way of communicating
information graphically
• Technical drawings are fundamental to engineering
• Provide the link between imagination and creation
• Like any form of communication, a basic grammar must be
adhered to, or else misunderstandings will result
• It is crucial that the graphical representation be clear and
unambiguous
• See notes from ECOR1054 for review
• The image must be precise and exact...

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Graphical Communication

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 Grammar: Line Types
• Object Lines: indicate all
visible edges of an object. They
should stand out so the shape
of an object is apparent to the
eye.
• Hidden Lines: shows object
lines that are hidden from view.
• Cutting Plane Lines: indicates
edge view of an imaginary
cutting plane.
• Centre Lines: indicates centres
of holes and symmetrical
features.

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Line Type Precedence

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Example

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Sketching Examples – Vehicle Lift

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Sketching Examples – A/C Conceptual Design

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Sketching Examples – a/c Conceptual Design

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Sketching Examples – a/c Conceptual Design

Raymer, Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach

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Questions??

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