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62 2 PROLOG Syntax and Meaning PPJSP

- Syntax and meaning in Prolog are closely related as the syntactic forms of data objects indicate their types. - There are 3 syntactic forms for atoms: strings of letters/digits/underscores, special characters, and strings in single quotes. - Numbers can be integers or real numbers in floating point format. Variables begin with uppercase letters. - Structures are objects with components and are represented as trees with functors and arguments. Matching unifies terms based on structure.

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44 views27 pages

62 2 PROLOG Syntax and Meaning PPJSP

- Syntax and meaning in Prolog are closely related as the syntactic forms of data objects indicate their types. - There are 3 syntactic forms for atoms: strings of letters/digits/underscores, special characters, and strings in single quotes. - Numbers can be integers or real numbers in floating point format. Variables begin with uppercase letters. - Structures are objects with components and are represented as trees with functors and arguments. Matching unifies terms based on structure.

Uploaded by

amedigitalfluency
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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PROLOG

SYNTAX AND MEANING


Ivan Bratko
University of Ljubljana
Faculty of Computer and Info. Sc.
Ljubljana, Slovenia
DATA OBJECTS

data objects

simple objects structures

constants variables

atoms numbers
SYNTAX FOR DATA OBJECS

• Type of object always recognisable from its syntactic


form
THREE SYNTACIC FORMS FOR ATOMS

(1) Strings of letters, digits, and “_”, starting with


lowercase letter:

x x15 x_15 aBC_CBa7

alpha_beta_algorithm taxi_35

peter missJones miss_Jones2


ATOMS, CTD.

(2) Strings of special characters

---> <==> <<

. < > + ++ ! .. .::. ::= []


ATOMS, CTD.

(3) Strings in single quotes

‘X_35’ ‘Peter’ ‘Britney Spears’


SYNTAX FOR NUMBERS

• Integers

1 1313 0 -55

• Real numbers (floating point)

3.14 -0.0045 1.34E-21 1.34e-21


SYNTAX FOR VARIABLES

• Strings of letters, digits, and underscores, starting with


uppercase letter

X Results Object2B Participant_list

_x35 _335

• Lexical scope of variable names is one clause

• Underscore stands for an anonymous variable


• Each appearance of underscore: another anon. var.
ANONYMOUS VARIABLES

visible_block( B) :-
see( B, _, _).

Equivalent to:

visible_block( B) :-
see( B, X, Y).
STRUCTURES

• Structures are objects that have several components


• For example: dates are structured objects with three
components
• Date 17 June 2006 can be represented by term:

date( 17, june, 2006)

functor arguments

• An argument can be any object, also a structure


FUNCTORS

• Functor name chosen by user

• Syntax for functors: atoms

• Functor defined by name and arity


TREE REPRESENTATION
OF STRUCTURES
Often, structures are pictured as trees

date( 17, june, 2006)

date

17 june 2006
• Therefore all structured objects in Prolog can be viewed
as trees

• This is the only way of building structured objects in


Prolog
SOME GEOMETRIC OBJECTS

P2 = (2,3) (6,4)

S T
(4,2)

P1=(1,1) (7,1)

P1 = point( 1, 1) P2 = point( 2, 3)
S = seg( P1, P2) = seg( point(1,1), point(2,3))
T = triangle( point(4,2), point(5,4), point(7,1))
LINE SEGMENT

S = seg( point(1,1), point(2,3))

S = seg

point point

1 1 2 3
ARITHMETIC EXPRESSIONS
ARE ALSO STRUCTURES
• For example: (a + b) * (c - 5)

• Written as term with functors:

*( +( a, b), -( c, 5))

*
+ -
a b c 5
MATCHING

• Matching is operation on terms (structures)

• Given two terms, they match if:

(1) They are identical, or


(2) They can be made identical by properly
instantiating the variables in both terms
EXAMPLE OF MATCHING

• Matching two dates:


date( D1, M1, 2006) = date( D2, june, Y2)

• This causes the variables to be instantianted as:


D1 = D2
M1 = june
Y2 = 2006
• This is the most general instantiation
• A less general instantiation would be: D1=D2=17, ...
MOST GENERAL INSTANTIATION

• In Prolog, matching always results in most general instantiation

• This commits the variables to the least possible extent, leaving


flexibility for further instantiation if required

• For example:
?- date( D1, M1, 2006) = date( D2, june, Y2),
date( D1, M1, 2006) = date( 17, M3, Y3).

D1 = 17, D2 = 17, M1 = june, M3 = june,


Y2 = 2006, Y3 = 2006
MATCHING

• Matching succeeds or fails; if succeeds then it results in


the most general instantiation

• To decide whether terms S and T match:


(1) If S and T are constants then they match only if they
are identical
(2) If S is a variable then matching succeeds, S is
instantiated to T; analogously if T is a variable
(3) If S and T are structures then they match only if
(a) they both have the same principal functor, and
(b) all their corresponding arguments match
MATCHING ≈ UNIFICATION

• Unification known in predicate logic

• Unification = Matching + Occurs check

• What happens when we ask Prolog:

?- X = f(X).

Matching succeeds, unification fails


COMPUTATION WITH MATCHING

% Definition of vertical and horizontal segments


vertical( seg( point( X1,Y1), point( X1, Y2))).
horizontal( seg( point( X1,Y1), point( X2, Y1))).

?- vertical( seg( point( 1,1), point( 1, 3))).


yes
?- vertical( seg( point( 1,1), point( 2, Y))).
no
?- vertical( seg( point( 2,3), P)).
P = point( 2, _173).
AN INTERESTING SEGMENT

• Is there a segment that is both vertical and horizontal?

?- vertical( S), horizontal( S).

S = seg( point( X,Y), point(X,Y))

• Note, Prolog may display this with new variables names


as for example:

S = seg( point( _13,_14), point( _13, _14))


DECLARATIVE MEANING
• Given a program P and a goal G,
G is true ( i.e. logically follows from P) if and only if:
(1) There is a clause C in P such that
(2) there is a clause instance I of C such that
(a) the head of I is identical to G, and
(b) all the goals in the body of I are true

• An instance of a clause C is obtained by renaming each variable in C


and possibly substituting the variable by some term. E.g. an instance
of
p(X,Y) :- q(Y,Z)
is
p(U,a) :- q(a,V).
DECLARATIVE vs PROCEDURAL
MEANING OF
PROLOG PROGRAMS
• Consider:
P :- Q, R.

• Declarative readings of this:


• P is true if Q and R are true.
• From Q and R follows P.

• Procedural readings:
• To solve problem P, first solve subproblem Q and then R.
• To satisfy P, first satisfy Q and then R.
PROCEDURAL MEANING

• Specifies how Prolog answers questions


• Procedural meaning is an algorithm to execute a list of goals
given a Prolog program:

program

success/failure indication
goal list execute
instantiation of variables
procedure execute( Program, GoalList, Success)

• execute = declarative meaning + procedural elements

Search program from top to bottom to find such clause

G is true ( i.e. logically follows from P) if and only if:


(1) there is a clause C in P such that
(2) there is a clause instance I of C such that
(a) the head of I is identical to G, and
(b) all the goals in the body of I are true
Match G and
Execute goals in order as they
head of C
appear in program

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