Topic 1.

1 Introduction to cells
Essential Idea: The evolution of
multicellular organisms allowed cell
specialisation and cell replacement

NOS 1: looking for trends and discrepancies –

although most organisms conformed to cell
theory there are exceptions (multi-nucleated
cells)

NOS 2: Ethical implications of research – involving

stem cells
Ted-Ed: the wacky history of cell theory: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4OpBylwH9DU
Extra: History of cell theory

Robert Remark
Time: 1855
Discovers cell division and confirms existence of plasma
membrane “all cells comes from existing cells”

Louis Pasteur
Time: 1864
his experiment shows that microorganisms do not originate
from “spontaneous generation – magically appear”
 Cell Theory
1.1.U1 According to cell theory, living organisms are
composed of cells

Cell theory states that:

1. All living organisms are composed of cell(s)

2. Cells are the smallest units of life

• Specialised structures in cells perform different
functions, however, organelles cannot survive alone,
but some cells can.
• Eg: Unicellular organisms = single cell that can carry
out all life functions
Function of Life
1.1.U2 Organisms consisting of one cell carry out all functions of life in that cell

All cellular organisms carry out the following function of life:

1. Metabolism – chemical reaction that release energy for cellular use

2. Response – respond to internal/external stimuli

3. Homeostasis – maintain stable internal conditions

4. Growth – increase in cell size or cell number, grow/develop

5. Reproduction – produce more offspring/cells – sexually or asexually
6. Excretion – remove waste products
7. Nutrition – obtain energy/materials from environment
Unicellular Organisms
1.1.U2 Organisms consisting of one cell carry out all functions of life in that cell

• Organisms that are only made up of one cell

• And carry out all functions of life with one cell

some algae = unicellular

All protists = unicellular All bacteria = unicellular some fungi = unicellular

Unicellular Organisms
1.1.A2 Investigation of function of Paramecium and one names photosynthetic unicellular organism

Relate the anatomy with the function of life:

Paramesium feeding & food vacuole:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a4aZE5FQ284
MR. H. GREN

Virtual Lab: http://vsprotista.weebly.com/virtual-lab.html

Cell division

heterotroph Eat bacteria, other

protozoa or
protists
Investigation of Cells:
1.1.S1 Use of light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues with drawing of cells. (Practical 1)
Calculating Magnification
1.1.S1 Calculation of the magnification of drawings and the actual size of Structures & Ultrastructure shown
in drawings or micrographs. (Practical 1)

• Magnification =

• Must have same units

• 1mm = 1000µm

• Compare scale in
diagram
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1hrkwJ_HuR0
 Unicellular vs Multicellular Organisms = SA/V ratio
1.1.U3 Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size

• Cell size are limited

(cells need to be
remain small) due
to surface area to
volume ratio.

• The larger the cell,

the smaller the
surface area:
volume ratio
If surface area: vol ratio too small, substances required for chemical reactions will not diffuse into cell quick
enough, waste products will not be excreted fast enough, heat loss is not fast enough (may overheat due to
chemical reactions – cell metabolisms)

• Unicellular (v. small -

microorganisms) – carry
out all function of life
within one cell

• Multicellular organisms
(large) = have many
specialised cells that
carry out certain
functions of life, but not
all.
Therefore, to form large organisms, they need to
be multicellular (consist of many cells) - to
maintain high surface area vs volume ratio
Cells and tissues that specialised in exchange of materials (especially
through diffusion) will maximise their surface area & increase rate of
diffusion.

Can you think of any examples?

Thin walls, highly branched/ folded, alveoli cells also contain microvilli
 Multicellular Organisms - Emergent Properties
1.1.U4 Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the interaction of their cellular
components
• Emergent properties = interactions between individual components produces new
complex function
• One simple cell = individual component
• Interactions between many (different) cells = organism
• Multicellular organisms have emergent properties: Organism as a whole system formed by
interaction between different systems, organs, tissues and cells

Muscle cell alone = can only

contract

But interaction between

different cells, tissues, can
form an organ that pumps
blood
 Other example of emergent properties:
Evolution: a single event of mutation is not going to form a new
species.
It is through millions of years, infinite mutations and
combinations, interactions with environment, mating behaviour,
geographical changes that form complex organisms and diversity
of species we see today.
And there is no purpose or design to evolution: beneficial
mutations which increase chance of survival occur by chance

Life itself is an example or emergent properties

TOK: Emergent properties vs reductionism
In molecular biology: study molecules of nucleic acid, glucose, proteins
(not alive)
Emergent properties of a watch: Each
Studying the complex interactions between these molecules that form
component is just a metal piece, but put
life (cell) is as important as well
together = new function as a watch
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16W7c0mb-rE&t=9s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t3ypu3fI6iQ
 Specialised cells
1.1.U5 Specialised tissues can developed by cell differentiation in multicellular organisms

In multicellular organisms, different cells perform different jobs (division of

labour). Thus, cells have become ‘specialised’ & adapt to carry out its
function efficiently

• (eg: red blood cells – no nucleus, have

haemoglobin)
• In humans, we have 220 recognised
specialised cell type
• Cells developed in different ways and become
specialised to its function through cell
differentiation
Differentiation in cells
1.1.U6 Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in a cell’s genome
• Despite their different structures, all 220 specialised cells in humans have the same gene &
DNA (all 46 chromosomes)
• However, different cell types will expressed different sequence of genes (turning some genes
on, turning some genes off)
• Gene expression controls the development of cells and causes cell differentiation
Extra: what switches genes on or off?
DNA are packed tightly together with
proteins for genes that are inactive
(heterochromatin)

While genes that are expressed &

transcribed to form protein are packed
more loosely (euchromatin)

Differentiated cells will have different

regions of DNA packaged as euchromatin
and heterochromatin according to their
specific function and these are controlled
by signals from neighbouring cells (growth
factors that activate transcription factors)
based on their positions

Article: https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/cell-differentiation-and-tissue-14046412/
Questioning the cell theory?!
1.1.A1 questioning the cell theory using atypical examples, including striated muscle, giant algae, fungal
hyphae

• Atypical examples: not typical cells – caveats to cell theory

1: Striated muscle cells

• Muscle cells that fuse together to form long
fibres
• Multiple nuclei but surrounded by single
continuous plasma membrane
• Combined together they are very large
compared to a single human cell
• Are they one cell or many cells?
• Challenges the idea that cells always function
as a single autonomous unit
2. Fungal hyphae
• Fungal hyphae cells are separated by cross
walls called septa
• But in some fungi, there are no septa. Their
hyphae is a tube-like structure with many
nuclei along it.
• challenges the idea that cells are always
separated into discreet units

3. Giant Algae – single cell

• Many algae are unicellular in ocean
• But Acetabularia – a giant alga can grow
very large (10 cm) but only have one
nucleus
• Challenges the idea that large organisms
are always multicellular
 Slime molds – are they unicellular or multicellular?
Plasmodium stage – many nuclei
All about slime molds:

https://www.youtube.com/
watch?time_continue=19&
v=sZhc8R58R7k&feature=e
mb_logo

https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=GY_uMH8Xpy0&f
eature=emb_logo

https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=elqwn7k2Wwk

Journey through the Microcosmos: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCBbnbBWJtwsf0jLGUwX5Q3g

Other Atypical examples:
• Red Blood Cells – have no nucleus.
While most eukaryotic cells do. Are
cells without DNA – cells?

• Viruses – have some characteristics of

living organisms, but are not cells?

• If all cells come from pre-existing

cells, where did the first cells come
from? (Origin of cells)
Stem Cells
1.1.U7 The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development
and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses

can divide indefinitely to

produce copious (abundant)
quantities of new cells. Useful
for growth of tissues or
replacement of lost/damaged
cells

Not fully differentiated,

can differentiates in
different ways to produce
different cell types
*xtra: Different types of stem cell
1. Toti/Omnipotent: Zygote= can form into any cells,
including forming placenta

2. Pluripotent: Embryonic stem cell  can form into any

human cells

3. Multipotent stem cells (v. small numbers in adult) eg:

mesenchymal stem cells

4. Oligopotent stem cells (found in adult) can only different

into closely related cell types (eg: bone marrow, skin, liver)

5. Unipotent (can only self-renew and form limited type of

cell) – brain, kidney, heart

Read:
https://bioinformant.com/do-you-know-the-5-types-of-stem
-cells-by-differentiation-potential/
 Stargardt’s disease
1.1.A3 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one other name condition

• Juvenile macular degeneration in children

• Caused by a defective gene which affect the
active transport of membrane protein in
photoreceptor cells, causing them to
degenerate
• Causing central vision loss
• In 2010, a woman was injected with 50, 000
retina cells made by embryonic stem cells
• Improvement in vision, no harmful side
effects
• Further clinical trials needs to be done
 Leukaemia – Bone Marrow (Stem cell) transplant
1.1.A3 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one other name condition

• Leukaemia: Cancer of white blood cells

made by bone marrow
• Bone marrow is important to make RBC,
WBC & platelets
• Treatment:
1. extract fluid from hip bone marrow that
contains adult stem cells
2. use chemotherapy to kill bone marrow
cancerous cells
3. return stem cells into recipient body
and re-establish in bone marrow
Parkinson’s Disease
• A degenerative disorder of the central
nervous system caused by the death
of dopamine-secreting cells
(neurotransmitter) in the midbrain
• Treated by replacing dead nerve cells with
living, dopamine-producing ones

Paraplegia: Repair damage caused by spinal

injuries to enable paralysed victims to regain
movement

Diabetes: Replace non-functioning islet cells

with those capable of producing insulin in
type I diabetics

Burn victims: Graft new skin cells to replace

damaged tissue
 Ethical Implication of Therapeutic use of Stem Cells
1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from 3 different ways:

• Stem cells can be derived from one of three sources:

1. Embryos (may be specially created by therapeutic cloning)
2. Umbilical cord blood or placenta of a new-born baby
3. Certain adult tissues like the bone marrow (cells are not pluripotent)

Most controversial is embryonic stem cells:

• Are we killing life by killing embryos? At which point does life actually starts?
• Are we playing ‘God”? (Religious arguments)
• embryonic stem cell through IVF, if women are paid for their eggs from ovary, would
women, college students facing financial difficulty be exploited?
 Artificial Stem Cell technique

(Cloning method)

Induce a change in the gene expression profile of a cell in order to transform it

into a different cell type (trans differentiation)
 Arguments in favour of Therapeutic Stem Cells Argument against Therapeutic Stem cell
embryonic stem cells are no longer needed as
stem cells can be used to replace organs/tissues adult stem cells can be used without causing loss
that have been lost/damaged in a patient of life;
there is danger/more risk of embryonic stem
any procedure that reduces pain and suffering is
cells developing into tumour cells/harmful
ethically/morally justified;
effects are not yet known
pain and suffering can be reduced/lives can be every human embryo is a potential human with
saved/life quality improved the right to development
cells can be removed from embryos that have
stopped developing and would have died more embryos may be produced than can be
anyway used and so some would be killed

cells are removed at a stage when no pain can be any procedure that harms a life/kills is
felt by the embryo; unethical/morally wrong
women, college students facing financial
use embryos from IVF that would otherwise be difficulty be exploited for eggs in ovary (similar
destroyed to illegal organ trafficking)
Ethical Implication of Therapeutic use of Stem Cells
1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from 3 different ways:

Aim 8:
There are ethical tissues involved in stem cell research
CONS: use of embryonic stem cells involves the death of early-stage
embryos
PROS: is therapeutic cloning is successfully developed, suffering of
patients with wide variety of conditions can be reduced

Currently: use of stem cells in treatment of disease is still at

experimental stage (with the exception of bone marrow stem cells)
International
Minded-ness
• Stem cell research has
depended on the work of teams
of scientists in many countries
who share results thereby
speeding up the rate of
progress.
National governments are influenced by local, cultural and
religious traditions that impact on the work of scientists and the
use of stem cell in therapy.