Fundamentals of

Thermodynamics & Heat

Transfer
BE Civil Engineering, I/I
Thermodynamic System, Surroundings and Boundary

Thermodynamic system is the part of the universe which is to be

studied or analyzed.
All the medium outside to the system is called surroundings.
The medium which separates system from its surroundings is called
boundary.
System and surroundings taken together is called universe.
2
Objective of most of the thermodynamic analysis is to study the
interaction between the system and the surroundings and effects of
this interaction on the system or on the surroundings.

System and surroundings can interact with each other either by

mass transfer or energy transfer.

According to mode of interaction between the system and the

surroundings, systems are classified into three types: closed system,
open system and isolated system.

Mass Energy
Closed System  e

Open System e e
Isolated System
 
3
Control Mass
Total mass of a closed system always remains constant therefore any
closed system can be completely described by the properties of
particular amount of mass inside the system. Hence, a closed system
is also called a control mass (CM).
4
Control Volume
In case of an open system, properties of particular mass cannot
describe the properties of the system for any instant.
For the study of an open system, we select some specified region
and analyze this region with reference to thermodynamic properties.
Hence an open system is also called a control volume (CV).

Thermodynamic Property
Any parameter or variable used to describe a thermodynamic
system is called a thermodynamic property.
Most common thermodynamic properties are pressure (P),
temperature (T) and volume (V). Other properties which will be
dealt in the following chapters are internal energy (U), total energy
(E), enthalpy (H) and entropy (S).
5
According their nature, thermodynamic properties are generally
classified into two groups: intensive property and extensive
property.
Thermodynamic property which is independent of mass or part of
the system considered is called an intensive property.
Thermodynamic property which is proportional to mass or part of
the system considered is called an extensive property.

Pressure and temperature are examples of intensive properties.

Volume, internal energy, total energy, enthalpy, entropy are
extensive properties.
Since extensive properties are proportional to mass they can be
converted into intensive form by dividing its value by mass. The
ratio of an extensive property to the mass is called the specific
property.
6
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is said to be in a thermodynamic equilibrium if there is no
change in any properties of the system when it is isolated from its
surroundings.
A system is said to be in a thermodynamic equilibrium if all
intensive properties have same value throughout the system.
For a thermodynamic system to be in a thermodynamic equilibrium,
it should satisfy the following equilibrium conditions: thermal
equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium and chemical equilibrium.
For a system to be in a thermal equilibrium, there should not be any
temperature difference within the system.
For a system to be in a mechanical equilibrium, there should not be
any pressure difference within the system.
For a system to be in a chemical equilibrium, there should not be
any chemical reaction. 7
Thermodynamic State
Each unique condition at which a thermodynamic system can exist
is a called a thermodynamic state.

Thermodynamic state is specified with the values of thermodynamic

properties.

Properties of a Thermodynamic Property

A variable is a property, if and only if,
• it has a single value at each equilibrium state.
• a change in its value between any two prescribed states is
independent of path.

8
Thermodynamic Process
The path followed by a system when it undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another is called a thermodynamic process.

Thermodynamic process can also be defined as a locus of states

through which system passes while undergoing change form one
equilibrium state to another.

Thermodynamic process is described with the help of property

diagrams.

9
Reversible and Irreversible Process

10
Any process which passes through a series of equilibrium states
such that each intermediate states can be located on a property
diagram is called a reversible process.

Any process which passes through a series of intermediate states

which cannot be defined or cannot be located on a property diagram
is called an irreversible process.

Cyclic Process
A process is said to be a cyclic process,
if the initial state of the system is
restored by a number of different
processes in series. For a cyclic process,
initial and final states are identical.

11
Equality of Temperature
Two systems are said to have equal
temperatures, if there is no change in any
properties of both the system when they
are brought in contact with each other.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

When two systems are separately in
thermal equilibrium with a third system,
then these two systems should also be in
thermal equilibrium.
This basic fundamental has been given
emphasis and named as Zeroth law
because it is used in all temperature
measurement process. 12
Energy
Energy can be defined as the capacity of a system to exert (provide)
force for a certain interval.
Different forms of energies are classified into two groups in
thermodynamics: stored energy and transient energy.
Energy which remains within Energy which can cross the
the system boundary as boundary of the system during a
inherent property of the system thermodynamic process is called
is called stored energy. transient energy.
Internal energy, potential Work transfer and heat transfer
energy and kinetic energy are are examples of transient energy.
examples of stored energy.
Stored energies are Transient energy are not
thermodynamic properties. thermodynamic properties.

13
Total Energy
Total energy of a system is defined as the summation of its internal
energy, potential energy and kinetic energy.

Enthalpy
The expression U+PV occurs so frequently in thermodynamics that it
has been given a special name and symbol; enthalpy and H.

Hence, enthalpy is defined as the summation of internal energy and

the product of pressure and volume.

14
Heat Transfer
Transfer of energy, without transfer of mass, because of temperature
difference between the system and the surroundings is called heat
transfer. Heat transfer is denoted by Q and expressed in J.
In thermodynamics, heat transferred (supplied) to the system is
taken as positive heat transfer and heat transferred (lost) from the
system is taken as negative heat transfer.

Work Transfer
Work transfer is the transfer of energy, without transfer of mass,
because of any property difference other than temperature. Work
transfer is denoted by W and expressed in J.

In thermodynamics, work done by the system is taken as positive

work transfer and work done on the system is taken as negative
work transfer.
15
Expression for Displacement Work Transfer
Consider a piston cylinder device containing a
gas. During process 1-2, piston is displaced by ds
from state 1 to state 2. Applying mechanical
definition, work transfer is evaluated as

where F is the force provided by the gas pressure, i.e., F = PA

Substituting F into above equation, we get

The above equation shows that the work
transferred during any process can be
determined by evaluating area covered by
the process on P- V diagram.
16
Displacement Work Transfer for a Constant Volume Process

Displacement Work Transfer for a Constant Pressure Process

17
Displacement Work Transfer for a Constant Temperature Process
Pressure volume relationship for an ideal gas
undergoing a constant temperature process is
given as

Applying the Equation for initial, final and any intermediate states,

Pressure at any intermediate state is given as

Then work transfer is given as

18
Displacement Work Transfer for a Polytropic Process
Thermodynamic process which follows the relation PVn = constant
is called a polytropic process and the index n is a polytropic index.

It is a generalized equation for thermodynamic processes and

represents different processes for different values of n.
Value of index n Equation Process

0 P = Constant Constant pressure or

Isobaric
1 PV = Constant Constant temperature or
Isothermal
 PV = Constant Adiabatic
Constant volume or
 V = Constant Isochoric
19
Pressure-volume relationship for initial, final and any intermediate
state during a polytropic process is given as

Pressure at any intermediate state is given as

Then work transfer is given as

20