Unit Five: Politics, economy and social processes

from the early 16th C to the end of the 18th centuries

Major developments of the period include:

 Expansion of trade, conflicts between the
Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates
and foreign interventions;
 The population movements of the Afar, the
Somali, the Argoba and the Oromo;
 Religious expansions, interaction of peoples
and the resultant integration across ethnic
and religious diversities.
5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the
Sultanate of Adal

 The revival of long-distance trade caused

competition and struggle for control over the trade
routes between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim principalities
 Religion provided ideological justification for the
wars.
 It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements
in leadership that he mobilized the pastoral
communities of the Afar, the Somali, the Harla,
Harari and others to a common cause.
 Cont’d

 He (Imam Ahmed) convinced them not to fight

amongst themselves but to unite and expand to the
Christian Kingdom and resolve their pressing
material needs while at the same time guarding
Islamic doctrines and practices from the infiltration
of any alien religious doctrine. He was able to gain
acceptance as Imam and consolidated his army to
fight the Christian Kingdom.
 Cont’d

 Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel was enthroned

when he was only eleven years old.
 Assisted by the elderly Elleni and due to
internal conflicts in Adal, the Christian state
initially retained its interest and even advanced
into Muslim territory scoring significant
victories in the early sixteenth century.
 As a result, most of the Muslim Sultanates
including Adal were made tributaries to the
Christian Kingdom.
 Cont’d
 Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army. By the time Imam
Ahmed was strong enough for military confrontation in
1520, he refused to pay tribute and this was followed by
a campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527.
 The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the
territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama,
Hadiya and Kambata and putting the Christian
Kingdom at risk.
 In 1528, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force from
his domain and encamped about fifty kilometers east of
what is now Addis Ababa. In addition to logistical
problems, the leadership of the army of Christian
Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat
Adal’s force.
 Cont’d

 On the other hands, Imam Ahmed's highly motivated

but small-sized army faced no such logistical
challenges.
 The Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership
characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics
with a unified command.
 As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian
army was defeated in one of the most decisive
engagement at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529,
near present day Mojo. After the victory, the Imam’s
army made a large-scale control of the territories of
the Christian Kingdom including Shewa, Amhara,
Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash.
 Cont’d

 By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila

to Massawa on the coast including the Ethiopian
interior. As he penetrated deep into the Christian
Kingdom, Imam Ahmed established a civil
administrative bureaucracy constituted from his
own men and newly recruited personnel from the
Christian territories.
 One of the most illuminating figures during the war
was the wife of the Imam, Bati Del Wanbara. She
was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of
Adal known as Mahfuz.
 Tradition claimed that Del Wanbara had encouraged
her husband to avenge the death of her father.
 Cont’d

 She accompanied her husband throughout his

expeditions and she is said to have marched even in a
state of pregnancy during which she was unable to
use mules.
 Indeed, she delivered her two sons during the
campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present day
Tigray respectively.
 On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military set
back forced the reigning king, LebneDengel, to
retreat finally dying in 1540 as a fugitive.
 His son, Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559), continued to
face the wars this time with more intensity as Imam
Ahmed had received Turkish musketeers.
 The Arrival of Portuguese soldiers:
In the meantime, based on earlier request
made by LebneDengel in 1535, about four
hundred Portuguese soldiers, armed with
matchlocks arrived in the Christian court in
1541.
The force was led by Christopher da Gama,
the youngest son of Vasco da Gama.
However, in August 1542 the Christian army
was defeated at the battle of Ofla, in today's
southern Tigray.
In the battle, about two hundred Portuguese
were killed and their leader Christopher da
 The Role of Seblewongel (Wife of Libne-Dingil):

 She is said to have participated in the war

against Imam Ahmed in 1542 battle of Ofla
when the army of the Christian Kingdom lost
almost half of the Portuguese soldiers.
 After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident
about his army’s ability to repulse any future
attack by the force of the Christian Kingdom
that he sent his allies back home and let his
army camp.
On the part of the Christians, preparations were
made for final confrontation under the leadership
of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59).
 Cont’d

 The Queen mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the

reigning emperor how to prepare and march for the
battle of Woyna-Dega.
 Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit
and run strategy, which severely affected Imam’s
army.
 Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous
advantage of easy mobility because they did not
know where the attacks came from.
 On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was
encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked and
killed by John the Galicean, after a fierce fighting
at the battle of Woyna-Dega 1543.
 Cont’d

 Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was

confident that the nobility and his army were
loyal to him. As a result, the king restored
possession of almost all the northern and
central plateau.
 Muslim communities in the highlands
submitted to Gelawdewos and he was tolerant
toward them to promote national conciliation
and to develop revival of smooth relations
with the Muslim world.
 Gelawdewos was able to restore many of the
pre-1520s territories and tributary regions.
 Gelawdewos faced multiple challenges:

 In the period, the growing challenge to the

Christian state came from the retreating
soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal, the
Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude, and
Oromo advance into the center.
 Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn
alWaazir Mujahid was ready to wage war
against the Christian state for revenge.
 In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted
Gelawdewos and killed the king himself.
 Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563)
 He Succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the
Turks' force and reclaimed territories in the
coast including Dabarwa.
 However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted
and allied with the Turks against him.
 Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to
defend his terittory from the Turks while
fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel,
Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo.
 The emperor then marched to the north,
defeated Turkish forces, and restored the
territories.
 Consequences of the Muslim-Christian Conflict:
I. Negative consequences
 Human and material cost.
 Destruction of valuable documents and
heritages
 Population dislocation, migration
 Mutual exhaustion of both Muslim Sultanates
and the Christian Kingdom
 Paved the way for the success of the Oromo
population movement
 II: Positive consequences
 The war had resulted in cultural interaction among
the peoples of Ethiopia.
 Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied
by intermarriages among peoples of the various
cultural groups were one of these manifestations in
the long history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
Activity
1. Explain the various possible factors accounted for the
success of Adalite Sultanate at the battle of Shimbra
Kure, 1529 A.D
2. What factors contributed for the victory of CHK over
Adalite Sultanate at the battle of Woinadaga, 1543 A.D?
 External intervention
(Ottoman Turkey Versus Portugal)
 Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea
and the Indian Ocean between Portugal and
the Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged
conflict between the Christian Kingdom and
the Muslim principalities a global dimension.
 Middle Eastern powers including the dominant
Ottoman Empire who were the intermediaries
of the international trade were adversely
affected by the discovery of a new sea route to
India by Vasco da Gama in 1498.
 Cont’d

 They tried to counter the Portuguese

encroachment into the East, while Portugal for
its part began to look toward the Christian
Kingdom of Ethiopia as an ally, reviving the
old "semi-spiritual quest" for Prester John.
 On its part, the Christian Kingdom asked
Portugal’s military assistance against its
Muslim rival.
 Cont’d

 Having noticed the movement of diplomatic missions

between the Christian Kingdom and Portugal, the
Turks gave moral and military support to Imam
Ahmed.
 In 1540, the Imam turned to his Muslim ally, Turkey,
for assistance and regional Ottoman authorities
provided two hundred Muslim musketeers and ten
cannons.
 Religious Controversies
 The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have
regarded an alliance with Roman Catholicism as a
tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry and
training to restore its lost territories.
 In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their
bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to
expand Catholicism. The Jesuits promoted Catholic
doctrine of two different and therefore separate,
natures of Christ-divine and human, which was
contrary to Monophysite theology of EOC.
 EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo
had a perfect human nature inseparable from the
divine.
 Leading Missionaries
 The leading members of the mission who played key
role in efforts to evangelize the country include Joao
Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and
Alfonso Mendez.
 The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with
Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), hoping that the
rest of the society would follow suit.
 Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal
debates with the missionaries, but he was not
prepared to give in.
 Instead, he defended the teachings of Orthodox
Christianity in a document entitled the Confession of
Faith.
 Cont’d
 Minas (r.1559-1563) and Sertse-Dengel (r.1563-
1598) who succeeded Gelawdewos one after the
other, were too busy fighting against the Oromo
and the Turkish forces to engage the Jesuits in their
courts.
 The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-
Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to have been
sympathetic to Catholicism.
 Yet Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the Jesuits to
effect the desired result.
 Za-Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-
1603; 1604-7), who met a similar fate in the hands of
Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
 Jesuits during the reign of Susenyos(r. 1607-32).
 Susenyos who was challenged by provincial leaders
who refused to pay tribute, integrated the Oromo
with the forces of the central government to
consolidate his power and stabilize the country.
 Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an
alliance, which he got through the diplomatic
advisory of Pedro Paez.
 In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and
announced it to be state religion later in 1622.
1. What possible motives spurred (impelled) Emperor
Susenyos to accept Catholocism and to declare it as oficial
religiin of the Christian Kingdom?
 Various measures taken by Susenyos and Catholic
Priests against the Orthodox doctrines
 With the monarch’s consent (agreement), another
Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez ordered:-
 Reconsecration of Orthodox priests and deacons
and rebaptism of the masses.
 Besides, he called for the suspension of Old
Testament customs such as male circumcision and
the observance of the Sabbath.
 Additional pronouncements include prohibition of
preaching in Ge’ez, fasting on Wednesdays and
Fridays, reverence for Ethiopian saints and the
Ark of Covenant (Tabot). Meanwhile, he ordered
eating pork, Latin Mass and Gregorian calendar
to be adopted
 Eruption of bloody conflict
 The reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics
(clergymen) and the nobility.
 Even loyal followers of the emperor including his
own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) were opposed to the
changes initiated by the Jesuits.
 After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions
mounted and the state came to the verge of falling
apart.
 In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants
lost their lives in one day.
 Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor
of Fasiledas, who reversed the Catholic
transformation.
 Measures taken by Emperor Fasiledes:-
 He restored the position of Orthodox Church as
the state religion,
 Expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts
including Susenyos’s brother and the most fervent
supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos.
 Introduced a “closed-door” policy, which isolated
the country from all Europeans for about a century
and a half.
 Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close
diplomatic relations with the Islamic world and
formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim
states to ensure that no European crossed into the
Christian Kingdom.
 Cont’d
 In 1647, he concluded an agreement with the
Ottoman Pasha at Suakin and Massawa to the effect
that the latter should block any European from
entering in to his territory.
 By doing so, Fasiledas was able to restore peace
and order.
 Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained
effective until the beginning of the nineteenth
century with the exception of secret visits by a
French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and the
Scottish traveler James Bruce in 1700 and 1769,
respectively.
 Negative Legacies of Catholic Jesuits to the Ethiopians
Orthodox Church

 The Jesuit intervention triggered (caused) doctrinal

divisions and controversy within the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church that was divided into disputant
sects and reached its peak during the Zemene
Mesafint (1769-1855)
 Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ:
first in eternity as a Divine Being the eternal birth
and second, born again from St. Mary into the world
as a perfect man and perfect divinity united in one
 Cont’d

 It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.

 Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet
doctrine and accepted the eternal birth as the first
birth of Christ, but claimed that at the moment of his
incarnation, when he was born into the world, Holy
Ghost anointed him. This sect was dominant in
Gojjam.
 Sost Lidet /Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through
Grace) taught that Christ was first born in eternity
as divine being, was born again in the womb of St.
Mary and anointed by Holy Ghost. This sect was
dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
 5.3. Population Movements
 The movements of people from one place to another
have played important roles in shaping the history
of Ethiopia and the Horn. Population movements
occurred in the Horn due to various reasons, in varied
scales and followed different directions. People
moved from place to place due to pull and push
factors, which can be summed up as natural and
social. Specifically, people move out from their
habitats in search of resources and better living
environment in general.
 In Ethiopia and the Horn, the causes of the
movements could be attributed to the region's long
socio-political conditions involving military
conflicts, drought and demographic factors.
Consequences/effects of population movements during the Medieval period

Population movements of the medieval period

had extensive effects including the integration
of peoples across ethnic and religious lines.
Religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions
and intermingling of peoples.
Specifically, this has resulted in intermarriage
of peoples, change of abode, original culture
and evolution of new identities.
 5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and
Somali:-
• Causes
 The military conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late 15th
and the early 16th centuries was partly responsible
for the population movement of the Argoba, Afar
and Somali.
 In addition, pressure on the environment was a
major factor for the population movement.
 Their territories lay in the region where trade routes
passed and hence were affected by the consequences of
the military conflict.
 These peoples moved back and forth in response to the
ongoing military conflict.
 Cont’d

A. The Argoba:
The Argoba were major agents of Islamic
expansion, trade and Muslim state
formation in the Horn.
For instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat
were established by the Makhzumite and
Walasma Dynasties respectively.
The Afar: before the sixteenth century, due to
drought, the Afar moved towards the east
until they reached the middle Awash. Trade
routes linking the ports in the Horn passed
through the Afar's territory.
 The Somali
 Their territory lay in the region traversed by major
trade routes during medieval period.
 Prior to the sixteenth century wars between the
Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates, there
was environmental pressure on Somali inhabited
areas.
 The population movement of the Somali was a
strong force behind the military strength of the
Imam.
 However, the population movement of the Somali did
not last for long as they returned to their home base
following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

A. The Gadaa System

 The Oromo population movement of the sixteenth
century cannot be better understood without
considering the Gadaa system.
 The Gadaa system was an institution through which
the Oromo socially organized themselves, administered
their affairs, defended their territories, maintained law
and order, and managed their economies.
 Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the
Gadaa system emerged. However, it is clear that for
long the society organized their politics, economy,
social, cultural, and religious affairs through the Gadaa
institution.
 Cont’d
 The Oromo had practiced the Gadaa system long
before the sixteenth century movement.
 The Gadaa system constituted elements of
democracy such as periodic succession and power
sharing to prevent a one-man rule.
 Other principles of the system included
representation of all lineages, clans and
confederacies. It also served as a mechanism of
socialization, education, maintenance of peace and
order, and social cohesion.
 In addition, Gadaa constituted rules of arara
(conflict resolution), guma (compensation), and
rakoo (marriage).
 Gada Officials
 The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The
head of the government was known as Abba-Gadaa
literally “father of the period” who was assisted by
several elected representatives from among the
generation set.
 These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter
(staff)), Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly), Abba-
Dula (war leader), Abba Sera (father of law), Abba
Alanga (judge), Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and
other councilors.
 In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda)
played indispensable roles in power transfer and
legitimizing the ruling Gadaa class.
 Cont’d
 Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe
institution, which helped them to form sisterhood
and solidarity.
 Women from childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-
pubescent), qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage),
kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba) and cifire (wives of
Gadamojji/above 80 years) were believed to have
sacred power.
 They involved in occasions like power transfer,
conflict resolution, thanks-giving and others. The
kalale were also privileged to support and advise the
ruling class.
 The Oromo population Movement (1522-1618)
A combination of natural and manmade factors
caused the Oromo population movement of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Natural factors include demographic pressure
and subsequent need for land to accommodate
the growing human and livestock population.
Furthermore, the conflict between the
Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates
from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries
might have pressurized mainly pastoral
Oromo groups to leave the lands they
inhabited for other areas.
 Confederacies:
Borana and Barentu Confederacies:
Borana moved in the North western direction
Barentu moved in the Northeastern direction
First Gadaa - Melba (1522-1530)
 Factors accounted for the success of the
Oromo population movement:
1. The mutual exhaustion of the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates
2. The Gada System
 Consequences:
• Ethnic and linguistic interaction
• Cultural intermixing
• Intermarriage
• A number of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo
adopted Gadaa system and Oromo language. Likewise,
the Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and traditions
of the people with whom they came into contact.
Mogassa and Gudiffacha
 Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption
mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.
 Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster
parent.
 Cont’d

• In this system, the child enjoyed equal rights and

privileges with a biological child. Likewise, Moggasa
was a system of adopting non-Oromos commonly
known as Oromsu.
• Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of
individuals or groups to a clan through oath of
allegiance (loyalty) with all the rights and obligations
that such membership entailed.
• Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on
behalf of the clan. The adopted groups gained both
protection and material benefits. The process
significantly contributed to the social cohesions,
national integration, and the revival of long-distance
trade.
 Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and
Western Regions
5.5.1. Peoples and States in the East
Somali
 The Somali people inhabited vast territory in the
Horn. For long, the Somali practiced pastoral
economy and moved between places for centuries
possibly in search of sufficient pasture.
 The Somali people inhabited vast territory in the
Horn. For long, the Somali practiced pastoral
economy and moved between places for centuries
possibly in search of sufficient pasture.
 Cont’d
 The council governed wide-ranging affairs including
resource allocation, marriage, trade and crime. As a
component of shir, the guurti (a council of elders)
was the highest political council mandated with
resolving conflict and crisis.
Afar
 The Afar predominantly lived in northeastern
Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti, although some
have also inhabited southern part of Eritrea. The Afar
had an indigenous governance system known as
Makabanto.
 Argoba
• Early reference to the people of Argoba is
insufficient. There are two versions on the origin of
the people of Argoba.
• The first version holds that they descended from the
followers of the Prophet Mohammed who came to the
Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat.
• The second version claims that the origin of the
Argoba is not related with Muslim-Arab immigrants.
More plausibly, the Argoba are one of the ancient
peoples in the region that accepted Islam very early
from religious leaders who came from Arabia.
 The Emirate of Harar
• Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the
region of Ethiopia and the Horn.
• In the sixteenth century, Harar became the capital of
Walasma of Adal replacing Dakar until 1577 when it
was shifted to Awsa due to the pressure from the
Oromo. Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used Harar as a
center from where he launched his campaigns into the
Christian kingdom in 1527.
• Later during the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar
became a walled city where the sultanate of the
Harari developed.
• Emir Abdulahi- its last ruler, 1887
 5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts

A. The Kingdom of Showa

 It was formed by a Menz ruler Negasi Kristos
(r.1696-1703) and eventually controlled districts like
Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and Yifat. The second
king was Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos
(r.1703-18).
 The dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-
Sellasie (r.1813-47), the grandfather of Emperor
Menilek II.
 During his reign, many travelers visited Shewa and
he even signed “treaty of friendship and commerce”
with the British in 1841.
 Economic base
 Shewa’s economy was mainly based on agriculture
supplemented by trade and craft. Near the capital,
Ankobar, there was an important trade center in
Aleyu Amba administered by the Shewan court.
B. Guraghe
 The Gurage are divided into the Western and
Northern Gurage.
 The first are also known as Sebat Bet Gurage and
include: Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer (Inamor, Enner,
Endegegna and Gyeto).
 Cont’d
 The latter are variously known as Kistane, Aymallal
or Soddo Gurage. Additional groups included Dobbi,
Gadabano and Masqan. The staple crop in Gurage
land is enset.
 The Gurage had traditional system of governance
developed over the centuries. It is known as the
Yajoka Qicha among the Sebat Bet and the
Gordanna Sera among the Kistane.
 Peoples and States in Southwestern Part
A. Wolayita
 The name Wolayta denotes a specific ethnic group in
southwestern Ethiopia and their powerful kingdom,
which first emerged as a state in the thirteenth
century.
 The state flourished in the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries because of successful wars that
the Wolayta fought against their neighbors and the
material, human and territorial gains thereof.
 At the apex of the social and political hierarchy was
the Kawo (king), assisted by a council of advisors.
 Cont’d
 From the thirteenth to the late nineteenth centuries,
two successive dynasties ruled Wolayta: the
Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre.
 Founded in the thirteenth century by Motalami, the
Wolayta-Malla seems to have ruled until the end of
the fifteenth century.
 It was then superseded by the Tigre dynasty, so called
because it was supposedly founded by Tigreans from
northern Ethiopia.
 Its economy was depended on trade and agriculture
 Enset-the dominant form of cultivation
 Kaffa
 According to traditions, this powerful kingdom
emerged in the fourteenth century.
 Around mid seventeenth century, the state had come
to prominence.
 The ruling Minjo dynasty and the medieval kingdom
of Ennarya had close contact.
 The Oromo expansion might have forced the ruling
house of Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb which as
a result brought Christianity and the royal title tato
to Kafa.
 Cont’d
 Kafa’s economy was based on the cultivation of enset
on peasant farms supported by trade.
 Besides working on their land, peasants rendered free
labor service and tilled royal estates with the support
of slaves who were acquired through raiding or
trading, or as payment for debt.
 As far as trade is concerned, a prosperous commerce
took place with Oromo states of the Gibe region.
 Major trade items, such as musk, coffee, slaves,
Ivory, gold, honey-wax, and civet were exported via
markets like Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc.
 Administration
 At the apex of the administration of the kingdom was
the Tato with his major political center at Bonga.
 Another seat of power was Andarcha, seven miles to
southeast.
 The Tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors
called Mikrecho. The Mikrecho served to moderate
the power of the king but they played important roles
in succession as well.
 The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches
called Kuripo as defensive barrier.
 The Gojeb also served as natural protection against
external invasion and it might have contributed to
their relative independence until 1897.
 Yem
 The Yem state was located along the eastern banks of
the Gibe or to the northeast of the Kafa kingdom.
 Yem’s economy combined agriculture, trade and
crafts.Initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or
Halmam-Gamma ruled Yem from its palace in
Dudarkema/Zimarma near Oya, in the vicinity of Bor
Ama Mountain.
 Besides being at the top of the political ladder, the
Amno (king) of Yem acted as a chief priest with
attributes of divinity.
 A state council of 12 members named Astessor with
its chairperson Waso assisted the Amno in
administering the state.
 Cont’d
 Erasho were the provincial governors and they were
responsible for digging ditches called bero and
erecting nearly fifty-meter wooden or iron pillars at
the center of the kingdom around Brisi Bita so that
the war father, the Nomiaw, could patrol the
surroundings.
 Special messengers, Wosi carried orders from Amno
down to district chiefs, Gagna and vice versa.
 In the fourteenth century, the last King
Oyokam/Amo Dasha was overthrown by people
from the north who founded a new dynasty called
Mowa (Howa) with its center at Angari.
 Cont’d
 In the nineteenth century, the neighboring state of
Jimma Abba Jifar tried to control the Yem which
itself was absorbed into the imperial state of Ethiopia
under Emperor Menilek II towards the end of the
century
Gamo
 Historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes
Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe Mountain and
beyond.
 Gamo’s physical landscape can be divided into two:
the geze (highland) and the bazo (lowland).
 Cont’d
 The highlands were densely populated while people
who escaped coercion by the state at the political
center largely settled the lowlands which also served
as hunting fields.
 A set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga
defined land-use in the Gamo highlands.
Economy
 The cultivation of enset had been central to the
subsistence of Gamo highlands while maize and
sweet potato were staple food crops in the lowlands.
 Other crops grown in the highlands included barely,
wheat, teff, peas, beans and cabbage. Besides
farming, most farmers kept cattle for food, manure,
 Cont’d

 Craft making, pot making, tanning and metalworking

were other modes of the subsistence system.
 These people had developed their own indigenous
knowledge and technologies in manufacturing
different types of tools and weapons, traditional
musical and funeral instruments, weaving colorful
textiles etc.
 Between the sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries,
the Gamo lived in scattered settlements and organized
in different communities called dere.
 Cont’d

 The dere were politically autonomous villages (units)

but shared three essential features.

 These were: 1) each dere had kawo (hereditary ruler)

who also offered sacrifices and symbolized the unity
of the people.
 2) every dere had its own initiates called halaqa and;
 (3) every dere had its own assembly place called
dubusha, where communal matters were discussed
and disputes solved.
 Dawuro
 Dawuro’s topography mostly is mountainous and
plateau at the central, and lowland and plain at Gojeb
and Omo river basins.
 The land is divided into three climatic zones. These
are geziya (highland), dashuwa (mid-altitude) and
gad’a (lowland).
 Such climatic conditions enriched Dawuro with a
variety of tree species and natural vegetation/forest.
 The livelihood of Dawuro people is based on mixed
agricultural activities.
 The language of Dawuro people is Dawurotsuwa, a
sub-group of the Omotic family.
 Peopling of the Dawuro
 Historically, Dawuro land had been inhabited by three
major clans namely Malla, Dogolla, and Amara which
altogether were regarded as Gok’as or K’omos.
 The area was also home for people that came from
neighboring Omotic states such as Wolayta, Kucha,
Gamo, Gofa, and Kafa and from places like Gondar,
Gojjam, Tigray and Shewa.
 A political alliance through royal marriages was one
important factor that facilitated the movement of
people from neighboring territories into Dawuro.
 Cont’d
 By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big
state from a great number of petty chieftainships on
the territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers in the
north, east and south and the Kafa high mountains in
the west.
 Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of Dawuro,
Kati Irashu and Kati Halala were famous. Kati Halala
was the grandson of the king of Kafa.
 During his reign, Dawuro incorporated Konta. He is
known for his stone fortifications, which he oversaw
to defend his territories from outsiders.
 Arsi
 The Omo River basin had been home to different
groups of people since early times.
 These included the Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi, Erbore,
Hamer, Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom, Bodi, Male, etc.
 Major economic activities in the region were
sedentary agriculture, pastoralism and handcrafts.
 The language of the Ari people is called Araf, which
is one branch of the Omotic language family. The
people were sedentary agriculturalist. The society was
organized into ten independent clan based chiefdoms.
 Cont’d
 Hereditary clan chief known as Babi headed each of
these chiefdoms.
 The clan chief was entitled with both political and
ritual authorities over the people of his respective
domain.
 The clan chief was assisted by officially appointed
prominent figures in the administration of the
political unit.
 The assistants included Godimis (religious leaders),
Zis (village heads) and Tsoikis (intelligence agents of
Babi).
 5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West
Berta and Gumuz
 The Berta people inhabit the present Beni-
Shangul Regional State.
 The earliest record of Berta settlement in this
region dates from the sixteenth century.
 The Berta people speak the Berta language as
their mother tongue.
 It is a tonal language classified as a branch of
the Nilo-Saharan linguistic group. In addition
to the Berta, the Beni-Shangul is home for the
Gumuz.
 Cont’d

 They are mentioned by the Scottish explorer

James Bruce. He notes that they hunted with
bows and arrows, a custom that survives today.
 The Gumuz speak the Gumuz language, which
belongs to the Nilo-Saharan family.
 It is subdivided in several dialects. Islamic
influence had been strong on the Berta and
other Nilotes because of their trade and social
contacts with the northern Sudan.
 Anywa
 Historically, the Anywa predominantly inhabited
areas along Pibor, Sobat, Gila, Akobo, Agwei, Oboth,
Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the western borderlands
of the present-day Gambella region.
 The people speak Dha-anywaa, a sub-branch of the
Nilo- Saharan language family.
 The Anywa had an indigenous administrative system
whereby each village lived under a chief called
Kuaari who along with the nobles, Nyiye, managed
the distribution of farm and grazing fields, settled
disputes etc with the community.
 Cont’d
 Although local traditions mention a certain person by
the name Oshoda as the founding father of the
Anywa, the administration of the territory was not
centralized.
 Economically, they are engaged in small-scale
cultivation, fishing and hunting. While most Anywa
practiced Christianity, they also believed in
traditional religion.
 Nuer
 Historically, the Nuer lived in areas that
extended across the savannas and marshes of
the Bahr el-Ghazal and the Upper Nile regions
of the Sudan.
 Since the nineteenth century, they had been
largely settled in the plains of Gambella along
the Sobat and Baro Rivers and parts of the
Sudan.
 The mainstay of Nuer’s economy was cattle
breeding supplemented by crop production.
 Cont’d
 The Nuer had developed a rather complex spiritual
culture around their cattle, which were used as bride
wealth as well. The Nuer had an age-set system
combining social and political functions. Nuer boys
had to pass through a rigorous test and a series of
rites connected with it before they were initiated into
adulthood.
 Majang
 The Majang formed the southern end of the Nilo-
Saharan settlement that covered the escarpment of the
Oromo inhabited highlands to the Baro plains.
 Linguistic evidence relates the origin of the Majang
to the Boma plateau in South Sudan.
 Gradually, they moved northwards and settled in
forested areas of western Ethiopia.
 By mid twentieth century, their settlement extended
to areas near Dembi-Dollo in the north.
 Economically, the Majang practiced shifting
cultivation and animal husbandry. Other economic
activities of the Majang include beekeeping, hunting
and fishing.
 The Kunama
 The Kunama people also called the Baza are one of
the ancient inhabitants of western Eritrea on the Gash
and Tekkeze Rivers and in today’s northwestern and
western Tigray.

 The Arab traveller al-Ya‛qubi in 872 A.D. mentions

the kingdom of Baza, which is a self-designation of
the Kunama.
 The Kunama had a customary institution called
sanga-anene mandated with the administration of the
society.
 Economy
 The mainstay of Kunama’s economy is mixed
agriculture. Agriculture is based on the use of hoe,
spades, sickles and the ox (camel)-drawn plough.
 Signs of past practices of terraced agriculture are still
visible in some areas of the Kunama.
 The staple crop among the Kunama is sorghum
(kina), which also has a ceremonial value.
 Other crops grown are millet (bortaor beca), pulses
and maize (afokina). The Kunama also keep livestock
mainly goats, sheep, oxen, and camels.
5.6. Gondarine Period(1632-1769) and Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)

5.6.1. The Gondarine Period (1636-1769)

A. Political Developments
 The period of Gondar began from the reign of
Emperor Sartsa-Dengle when the political center of
Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar area.
 Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at
Enfranz in 1571.
 Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital
near Gondar in such places as Qoga, Gorgora,
Danqaz and Azazo.
 Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas (1636-
1667) established his political seat there.
 The Heyday of Gondar:
 Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first
three successive emperors: Fasiledas (r.1632–67),
Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).
 Among the major reforms during these periods were
the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion,
and the establishment of a royal prison at Amba
Wahni to solve problems stemming from power
rivalry.
 Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a
separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem.
 His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system,
introduced a system of land measurement in
Begemder, taxes, and customs, and revised the Fetha
Negest (the civil code).
 The Decline of Gondar
 The assassination of Iyasu the Great (r.1682- 1706)
by a faction under the leadership of his own son,
Tekle-Haymanot, ushered in political instability in
Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning of reigning
monarchs.
 Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the
death of his father and was in turn assassinated by
Tewoflos in 1708.
 Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by Yostos, who
was also poisoned in 1717 and replaced by Dawit III,
who himself was poisoned and replaced by Bakafa in
1721.
 Cont’d
 Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of
his followers and his wife Etege Mentewab until he
was incapacitated in 1728.
 The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased
involvement of the Oromo in Imperial politics and
the army as will be discussed shortly.
 From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with
her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul (1732-1767)
dominated the Gondarine court politics. Walda Le’ul
was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-
55) and Iyoas (1755-69). Following his death in
1767, Etege Mentewab was challenged by Wubit
Amito, her daughter-in-law from Wollo.
 Cont’d
 To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in
the royal court, Mentewab sought the alliance of
Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was politically
astute and militarily powerful.
 Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation
but refused to return to Tigray although demanded by
Iyoas. This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and
his replacement by an old man Yohannes II by Ras
Mika'el.
 Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son
TaklaHaymanot II (1769-77) on power.
 This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-
Mesafint (1769-1855).
 Remarkable Achievements of the Gondarine Period
 Gondar became the center of state administration,
learning, commerce, education, art, and crafts for
more than two centuries.
 The first three kings were successful not only in
political affairs but also in cultural developments.
 Gondar had great influence on the country’s cultural
developments.
 This enabled Gondar to repeat the splendors of
Aksum and Lalibela.
 The cultural achievements of the period led some
writers to describe Gondarine period in history as
Ethiopian Renaissance.
 Architecture
 Kings built significant secular buildings like castles,
bridges, residences, bath, library, towers,
fortifications and churches of various size and shapes.
 In the city’s compound, in addition to the most
impressive building known as Fasil Gemb, there are
different palaces corresponding to Emperor Fasiledas,
Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa and Regent
Queen Mentewab.
 The Gondarine style of architecture may have started
before the reign of emperor Fasiledas during the reign
of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle at about 1586. as could be
seen from his palace at Guzara near Enfranz.
 Painting
 This period is known as for the production of a
wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts and on
wood, ornaments, weapons and other accessories.
 The churches built by Queen Mentwab were known
for their beautiful paintings, cross and art works.
Literature
 The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a
great number of manuscripts.
 Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the
Lives of Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies, many
other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also
produced. Gondar is also known for its traditional
medicine, music and poetry.
 Commerce and Urbanization
 Gondar was a commercial center that
connected long distance trade routes of the
southern region with Massawa and Metemma
in the Ethio-Sudan border. Gold and salt were
used as medium of exchange.
 Daily markets were commonly held in the city.
 With spread of urbanization, the city became
residences of foreign communities like
Indians, Greeks and Armenians.
 The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000
population.
 The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
 Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual
political power was in the hands of different regional
lords.
 The period lasted from the time Ras Michael Sehul
"assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when
Kasa Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.
 Ras Mika’el who was a king-maker in the period
attempted to dominate the other regional lords. These
measures made him highly unpopular because of
which coalitions of lords of Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta
and Wollo fought and defeated him at the battle of
Sarba-Kussa in 1771.
 Cont’d
 The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint
lords ruled were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya,
Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa.

 When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty”

was the leading power during the Zemen-Mesafint
with the center at Debre-Tabor.
 Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as
the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
 Cont’d
 Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso
(r.1803-1825) who made incessant struggle against
Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch
Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
 In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8),
defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen. Maru of
Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in
1827.
 The period of Zemene Mesafint was brought to an
end by Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series of
battles that lasted from 1840s to 1855.
 Characterizing features of Zemene-Mesafint
 Absence of effective central government;
 The growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
 The domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia;
 Rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the
position of king-maker;
 Establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political
interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional
role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “closed-door”
policy. End of Unit-Five
 END OF
UNIT FIVE

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