UNIT ONE

1. THE NATURE AND USES OF HISTORY

A. Definition
 The term history derived from the Greek word Istoria, which means
inquiry, investigation, or a search for truth about past events.
 This term first coined by one of the ancient Greek historians,
Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.), who is often held to be the “father of
history.”
 It is difficult to give precise definition for the terms history. History
has been defined by scholars in different ways.
1
 history can be defined in broad and specific ways.
 Broadly history can be defined as all the things that have happened
in the human past.
 Specifically it can be defined as an organized and systematic study of
recorded human past.
 Unrecorded part is not included under history rather it is pre-history.
 It is a Systematic collection, organization and interpretation/analysis
of human past based on appropriate historical methodology.

2
 Nature of history
 History studies about change and continuity that happened in the human
society through the passage of time.

 It studies human society and its interaction with the natural environment
within the framework of the continuous process of change taking place in
time
 It deals about causation : cause and effect relationships b/n past and present

 An endless dialogue b/n past, present and the future

 History studies the present in the light of the past

 History in general deals all aspect of human life that includes social,
cultural, economic, political etc. 3
• On the other hand the division of human past into discrete period is
known as periodization
 Accordingly, history is conventionally divided into ancient, medieval
and modern history.
 Bases for periodization includes religious events,
evolution/civilization and important historical events/
the Main feature of history
 Uniqueness:-historical event never replicate itself
 Predictability:- possible to guess what would happen
 Unalterable:- can’t be changed
 Irreversibility:- historical events never turn back
4
 Uses of History

1. History helps us Better Understand the Present:- It is difficult to

understand problems that face humanity and society today without
tracing their origins in the past.

 The knowledge of history is essential for a balanced and in-depth

understanding of many current world situations.

2. History Provides a Sense of Identity:- Society define their identity,

orient themselves, and understand their relationships with other through
sense of history.

 Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who we are and

5
where we fit in the world.
3. History Provides the Basic Background for Other Disciplines:-
Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other
disciplines such as literature, art, philosophy, religion, sociology,
political science, anthropology, economics, etc.

4. History Teaches Critical Skills:- it help students to develop key

research skills such as how to find and evaluate sources; how to make
coherent arguments

5. History Helps to Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness:- it

provides broad perspectives.

 the knowledge of history contributes to free ourselves from some of

our inherent cultural provincialism.
6
6. History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination: - Exploring the ways
people in distant ages offers a sense of beauty and excitement.
 However, as history can be useful, it can also be abused.
 Such abuses come mainly from deliberate manipulation of the past to fit
current political agenda.
 Hence to minimize bias and distortion in history the work of historian
should be based on critical evaluation of sources.
SOURCES AND METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY
 Sources are key element for the study and writing of history.

 Sources are bridges that link historian with the past.

 Are instruments that bring to life what appears to have been dead
7
 Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: Primary and
Secondary
 Primary sources are original or first hand sources in their proximity
directly related to the event both in time and in space.
 Examples:- manuscripts, diaries, autobiography letters, minutes,
court records and administrative files, travel documents, photographs,
maps, video and audiovisual materials, and artifacts such as coins,
fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings.
 Secondary sources, on the other hand, are second-hand materials
about past events. They are written long after the event has occurred.
 Examples:- articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published
8
stories or movies about historical events.
 Oral data constitute the other category of historical sources.
 Oral sources are especially valuable to study and document the history
of non-literate societies.
 Oral data can be categorized in to two oral tradition and oral history.
 oral tradition is hear say information transmit from one generation
to another in the form of folk songs and folk sayings and taken as
secondary source.
 Oral history on the other hand is oral testimony/personal
recollections of lived experience and considered as primary source.
 For the history of Ethiopia and the Horn, historians use a combination
of the sources described above.
9
 Source criticism
 whatever the source of information-primary or secondary, written or
oral- the data should subject to critical evaluation before it is used as
evidence.
 Primary sources have to be verified for their originality and
authenticity
 Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability of their
reconstructions.
 Oral data may lose its originality and authenticity due to distortion
through time. Therefore, it should be crosschecked with other written
documents to determine its veracity or authenticity.
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 1.3. HISTORIOGRAPHY

 Historiography can be defined as the history of historical writing.

 An organized study and narration of the past was first introduced by

ancient Greek historians notably Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.) and

Thucydides (c.455-400 B.C.E.)

 The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the

Chinese. The most important early figure in Chinese historical thought

and writing was the Han dynasty figure Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.).

 History emerged as an academic discipline first in Europe in the second

half of the 19th century and subsequently in other parts of the world
11
 The German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), established
history as an independent discipline in Berlin with its own set of
methods and concepts.

 He is considered as the “father of modern historiography.”

Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn

• Historical writing in Ethiopia and the horn has changed enormously

during the past hundred years.

• Earlier forms of historiography (historical writing) on Ethiopia and

the Horn includes the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, written in the 1st
century A.D by an anonymous author. Deals about the port of adulis
12
• Another document describing Aksum’s trade and the then Aksumite
king’s campaigns on both sides of the sea is the Christian Topography
composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the 6thc A.D
was

• Inscriptions aside, the earliest written Ethiopian material dates from

the 7th century A.D.

• manuscript discovered in Haiq Istifanos monastery of present day

Wollo in the 13th c A.D.

• The largest groups of sources available for medieval Ethiopian history

are Hagiographies dealing about the life history of saints and
originating from Ethiopian Orthodox Church. 13
• A parallel hagiographical tradition existed among Muslim
communities of the country. One such account offers tremendous
insight into the life of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of
Gattira, in present day Wollo, in the late nineteenth century.
•Besides the saint’s life, the development of indigenous Islam and
contacts between the region’s Muslim community and the outside world
are some of the issues discussed in this document.

•Ethiopia had also an indigenous tradition of history writing called

chronicles.

•Chronicles first appeared in the fourteenth century and continue into the
early twentieth century.
14
•The earliest and the last of such surviving documents are the Glorious
Victories of Amde-Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress
Zewditu respectively.

•Chronicles incorporate about the monarch’s genealogy, upbringing,

military exploits, piety and statesmanship.

•Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong chronological
framework; however they are also averse to quantification.

•Furthermore, chronicles explain historical events mainly in religious terms;

•They offer little to social and economic developments even in the environs
of the palace.

15
•Beside Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast also
provide useful information on various aspects of the region’s history.

•For example, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture,

language and import-export trade in the main central region of the east
African coast in the 10th and in the 14th centuries respectively.

•In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries two documents composed by

Yemeni writers. The first document titled Futuh al Habesha was
composed by Shihab ad-Din, who recorded the conflict between the
Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in the sixteenth century

•The other first-hand account was left to us by Al-Haymi, who led a

Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes (r. 1632-67).
16
• Other materials that appeared in the sixteenth century include Abba
Bahrey’s Geez script on the Oromo written in 1593.
• Notwithstanding its limitations, the document provides us with first-
hand information about the Oromo population movement including
the Gadaa System.
• The contribution of European missionaries and travelers to the
development of Ethiopian historiography is also significant.
• Among a Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez composed book titled
Prester John of the Indies.
• In The document he discuses about religious and political
developments within Ethiopia, and the country’s foreign relations.
17
• In addition to the missionary sources, travel documents had
important contribution to the development of Ethiopian
historiography. Example the documents of James Bruce’s Travels to
Discover the Source of the Nile
• Foreign writers also contribute a lot for the development of Ethiopian
studies or historical writing.
• Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704) he was the founder of Ethiopian studies in
Europe in the seventeenth century.
• He wrote Historia Aethiopica (translated into English as A New
History of Ethiopia.
• Ludolf never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country’s history largely
18
based on information he collected from an Ethiopian priest.
• named Abba Gorgorios (Abba Gregory) who was in Europe at that
time.
• In the nineteenth century, August Dillman published two studies on
ancient Ethiopian history
• Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle tradition
in the early twentieth century.
•Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam, Aleqa Asme Giorgis and Debtera Fisseha-
Giorgis Abyezgi, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot
Baykedagn joined them.

• Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from

social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history.
19
•Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in Ethiopian history

•Gebre-Hiwot has wrote :-Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and

Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public
Administration) to his name.

•The most prolific writer of the early twentieth century Ethiopia was
Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie. He published four major works
namely:-

•Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and Metema),

•Wazema (Eve),

•Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and

20
• Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia).
•In contrast to their predecessors, Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative
objectivity and methodological sophistication in their works.

•Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early

experiment in modern history writing and publications.

•After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria, formed a bridge between writers in

pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional historians who came after him.

•Tekle-Tsadik made better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors.

•Another work of importance in this period is Yilma Deressa’s Ye Ityopiya

Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen(A History of Ethiopia in the
Sixteenth Century).

21
•Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel, also wrote Zikre Neger.
It is a comprehensive account of Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems
and taxation.

•Another work dealing specifically with aspects of land tenure is left to

us by Gebre-Wold Engidawork.

•Another writer of the same category was Dejazmach Kebede Tesema.

Kebede wrote his memoir of the imperial period, published as Yetarik
Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.

• The 1960s was taken as a crucial decade in the development of

Ethiopian historiography b/c
1. it was a period that history emerged as an academic discipline. 22
• historical studies as a full-time occupation began with the opening of
the Department of History in 1963 at the then Haile Selassie I
University (HSIU).
• Since then researches by faculty (both Ethiopians and expatriates) and
students have been produced on various topics.
2. It was time that institute of Ethiopian studies(IES) was founded in
1963.
 Since its foundation, the IES has been publishing the Journal of
Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of historical research.
 The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-
colonial phenomenon.
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 African history during colonialism was written by Eurocentric
perspective and lack objectivity.
 The decolonization of African historiography required new
methodological approach (tools of investigation) that includes
 a critical use of oral data, Archeological sources, anthropological
and linguistic sources

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 The geographical context
 The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to part of Northeast Africa
now contains the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and
Somalia.
 The major physiographic features of the region includes a massive
highland complex of mountains and plateaus lowlands, semi-desert,
deserts and tropical forests along the periphery.
 The diversity of the terrain led to regional variations in climate,
natural vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns.

25
• people across the region are also remarkably diverse: they speak
different languages, profess to many distinct religions, live in
various types of dwellings and engage in a wide range of economic
activities.
• However peoples of the region were never isolated; they interacted
throughout history from various locations.
• The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by contacts
with others through commerce, migrations, wars, slavery,
colonialism, and the waxing and waning of state systems.

26
• Another element of geographical factor that had profound impact on
human history is drainage system.
 Ethiopia and the Horn have five principal drainage systems. These are

1. the Nile River,

2. Gibe/Omo–Gojeb,
3. Genale/Jubba-Shebele,
4. the Awash River,
5. the Ethiopian Rift Valley Lake systems
 These watershed are very important in the life and history of the
peoples inhabiting the region.

27
 Besides providing people with the source of their livelihood, the
drainage systems facilitated the movement of peoples and goods,
exchange of ideas, technology, knowledge, cultural expressions, and
beliefs.
 Thus, studying the drainage systems of Ethiopia and the Horn is
crucial for proper understanding of the relationships of the peoples
living within the river basins.

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 UNIT TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

Introduction

 The region of Ethiopia and the Horn referred to as the cradle of

humankind.
 It is also a region where early civilizations including food production,
making tools and religious practices were initiated.
 These developments contributed to the social evolutions, economic
formations, and socio-cultural and political settings.
 HUMAN EVOLUTION

 Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is the

cradle of humanity. Both biological and cultural evolution have been
discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River valleys both
by Ethiopian and foreign scholars. Examples of archaeological
discoveries
1. A fossil named Chororapithecus which dated 10 million B.P. was
unearthed in Anchar in West Hararghe in 2007.
2. Ardipithicus Ramidus Kadabba which dated 5.8 -5.2 million years B.P.
was discovered in Middle Awash.
3. Ardipithicus Ramidus dated 4. 2 million B.P. was discovered at Aramis
 Other Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie which dated back
3.6 million years B. P. in Middle Awash
 Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3 million years B.P was
also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000.
 Another Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18
million years B. P.) with 40% complete body parts, weight 30kg, height
1.07 was discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974
 Fossil named Australopithecus anamensis was discovered around Lake
Turkana.
 An eco-fact named as Australopithecus garhi (means surprise in Afar
language) dated to 2.5 million years B.P was discovered at Bouri, Middle
Awash, between 1996 and 1999.
•The development of the human brain was the main feature of the next
stage of human evolution, which produced the genus Homo.

lists of genus Homo includes

1. Homo Habilis:-

 The name is derived from Latin terms "Homo“ which means human
being and "Habilis" (skillful),

 Also known as Handy human being

 dated 1.9 million years B. P.

 has been found in the Lower Omo

 2. Homo erectus

 The fossil discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and

Gadeb

 Which dated 1. 6 million years B. P.

 has 900-1100 cc brain size.

 invented fire and walking upright

 started burial practice.

 Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then spread out
to the rest of the world.

 The fossil of homo erectus found and dispersed in different area out
 3. Homo Sapiens

 knowledgeable human being

 Which dated 400, 000 years B.P.

 Has 1300-1400cc brain size and

 discovered in Middle Awash

4. Homo sapiens sapiens

 discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower
Omo in 1967.

 Which dated 100, 000-195,000 years B.P which is the oldest of the
world for Modern Homo sapiens.
 Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about
160,000 years B.P.

 Cultural evolution is highly related to technological changes that

brought socio-economic transformation on human life.

 It can be conventionally grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze Age and

Iron Age.

 Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human

beings.

 Based on its features, ways and period of production, stone tools can
be grouped in to three these are:-
1. Mode I (Olduwan),
2. Mode II, (Acheulean),
3. Mode III (Sangoon).
1. The Mode I stone tools are also known as Olduwan tools
 characterized by crude and mono-facial styles, and
 produced by the direct percussion.

2. Mode II stone tools are also known as Acheulean

 were produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer
 mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features.

3. Mode III stone tools are also called Sangoon

 characterized by flexible and fine form of production by the use of
 The Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were discovered
near Gona in 1992 and at Shungura in Afar.
 It dated 2.52 million years B.P.
 Acheulean tools were produced by Homo erectus which dated back
to 1.7.million years B.P,
 Acheulian tools were found at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963.
 Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000
years B. P.
 Based on period of usage stone tools is divided into three sub-periods.

1. the Paleolithic period

 also known as Old Stone Age,

 dated from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.

 human being sheltered in caves, developed language, and used stone ,

bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing.

 It was a period in which sex-age labor division maintained as such

able-bodied males as hunters of fauna, and children and females as
gatherers of flora.
2. Mesolithic period

 It is also known as Middle Stone Age

 Dated from 11, 000-10,000 B. P.)

 It was transition period between Paleolithic and Neolithic (New Stone

Age

3. Neolithic period

 It was a period human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary

way of life.

 from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and

animals.
• The process of domestication took place independently in the various
parts of the world.
• In Ethiopia and the Horn people chiefly cultivated plants like Teff
(Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia
abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc. and are indigenous to the
area.
• Beside Neolithic material culture discovered in Tigray, Aqordat and
Barentu
• The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us agricultural
stone tools.
• Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas and
vegetables have been excavated from Lalibela Cave on the
southeastern shore of Lake Tana.
• Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as well as rock
paintings of domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda rock
shelter near Charchar.

THE PEOPLING OF THE REGION

LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTIC PROCESSES
• Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic
diversity.
• There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the
Horn.
• Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major
language super families. These are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.
A. Afro-Asiatic: super family is sub-divided into the following families:

1. Cushitic: this language family is divided into four branches:

 Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea

bordering the Sudan.
 Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen.
 Eastern: includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore,
Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata,
Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro,
Tsemai, Qabena, etc.
 Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
2. Semitic is divided into two:-

1. North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border);

Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland
Eritrea and Tigray).
2. South: is further divided into two

 Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.

 Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).

3. Omotic: includes Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-
Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo,
Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko,
Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.

B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywak, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo,

Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er,
Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.
 Language classification did not remain static. population movements,
warfare, trade, religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc.
affected the language of certain group

 In this process, some languages died out or have been in danger of

extinction while others thrived over time.
 2.3.2. SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
 In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas
sparse.
 environmental, socio-economic, and political processes
significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of
peoples in the region.
 A. Cushitic and Semitic Peoples’ Settlement patterns

 the Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in

Ethiopia and the Horn and have also spread over wide areas from
Sudan to Tanzania.
 Similarly, the Semitic peoples spread over large area and eventually
settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south central and
eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The Semites are the second majority people next to the Cushites.
 B. Omotic Peoples’ Settlement Patterns

 the majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia

along the Omo River basin.
 Yet, in the earlier times, they had extended much further to the north.

C. The Nilotes Settlement Patterns

 the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border
although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern
Omo.
 The latter are identified as the Karamojo cluster living around
Turkana Lake along Ethio-Kenyan border.
 2.3.3. Economic Formations

 The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two

interdependent modes of life: agriculture and pastoralism.
 Topographic features and climatic conditions are the two major
factor that largely influenced economic activities of people in Ethiopia
and the Horn.
 People inhibiting eastern lowland region has characterized pastoral
economy since early periods.
 Involved in herding of camel, goat, and cattle has been the most
common economic practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well
as Karayu and Borana Oromo.
 Majority of the populations inhibiting in the plateau were engaged in
mixed farming.
 Here sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least
since 10, 000 years B. P. by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups.
•The major economic activity of the Omotic has been mixed farming and
trade in northern Omo while southern Omo have predominantly
practiced pastoralism and fishing.

•Many of the Omotic groups have also been famous in metallurgy,

weaving and other crafts.
 Religion and Religious Processes

2.4.1. Indigenous Religion

 Since the earlier time people in Ethiopia and the horn have been
practicing indigenous/traditional religion.
 a distinctive mark of indigenous religion is believe in Supreme Being
special powers are attributed to natural phenomena, which are
considered sacred.
 Different ethnic group in Ethiopia have their own indigenous religion
 Indigenous religion of the Oromo-

 the Oromo believe on the existence of one Supreme Being called

Waqa.
 Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana.
 Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) have
maintained link between the Ayyana and the believers.
 Hadiya

 The Hadiya believe on the existence of Supreme Being known as

Waa, who is believed to exist before everything (hundam issancho) or
create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes are represented by elincho
(sun) and agana (moon).

 Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard), Hausula,

Qedane and Warriqa attracted prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla and
Kallalamo mountains chosen by Anjancho and Jaramanjcho.
 3. Kambata

 The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious

officials known as Magnancho.
 The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had thanks giving
ceremony called Deraro.
 The Konso religion is centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh.
 The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God).
 the Gurage, have been worshiping indigenous religion called
Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and Damwamwit
(health goddess).
 Cont’d

 Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God). So’ala clan was considered as the
top in religious duties as it was in charge of Shashokam (the most
vital deity).
 Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village
called Magos.
 The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.
 Wolayita

 The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana including Tawa-
Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit), Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain
spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit), Kuchuruwa
(emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or
talheya, Omo spirit) etc.
 Some of the practices and believes of Indigenous religion are fused
with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions
is known as syncretism.
 2.4.2. Judaism

 Judaism has been followed by people of Ethiopia and the Horn before
the introduction of Christianity in the region.
 It was first recognized as Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic
Judaism.
 Many of the Bete-Israel accounts trace their religion from the very
ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, at
the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.)
 Cont’d
 Following the crises in Judea, i.e., split of the northern Kingdom of
Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King
Solomon or Babylonian Exile.
 Other Bete-Israel take as their basis following the return of Queen of
Saba (Sheba )to Ethiopia with Menilek I, who is believed to be the
son of King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and
considered to be the first Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia.
 Cont’d

 There are also other stories that attribute the presence of the Bete-
Isreal in Ethiopia to an intermarriage between Jewsh immigrants
with native Agaws.
 On the other hand, scholars such as Tadese Tamirat argue that the
Bete-Israel are remnants of old testament followers of orthodox
Christianity rather than Jews who migrated from abroad.
 Whatever the case, The Jews developed and lived for centuries in
northern and northwestern Ethiopia.
 2.4.3. Christianity

 Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D during the reign of King
Ezana (r. 320-360), who dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares,
Maharram/war god), Arwe (serpent python god), Bahir (sea god)
and Midir (earth god), and latter embraced Christianity.
 The two Syrian brothers Aedesius and Frumentius (Fremnatos) were
instrumental in conversion of the king to Christianity
 Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) later appointed as the
first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) by Atnatewos 328-
373) patriarch of Alexandria.
 Cont’d
 Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until
1859, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.
 Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in the 5 th
century, by the nine saints.
The role of nine saints
 introduced a monastic life into Ethiopia
 built many churches and monasteries
 Translated Bible and other religious books into Geez.
 Christianity During the Zagwe Dynasty

 The expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270)

 In the early Medieval Period (1270-1527) many churches and

monasteries were constructed. Among Rock-hewn churches of
Lalibela, Debra-Bizan of Hamasen, Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-
Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Birbir
Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.

 These churches and monasteries are not merely religious centers, but
served as repositories of ancient manuscripts and precious objects of
art.
 The Catholic Interlude

 From mid 16th- early 17th centuries, the Jesuit missionaries tried to
convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic.
 this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits.
 However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies
within the EOC
 Various Contributions of Missionaries

 They translated spiritual books into vernaculars.

 Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith.
 They also provided medical facilities.
 2.4.4. Islam

• Islam introduced in to Ethiopia in the 7th century

• When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca since 610
AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers.
• Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early followers
to Aksum including his daughter Rukiya, Uthman as well as the
Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum .
 The first group of refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib.
 Cont’d
 In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king
under whom none are persecuted.
 It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from what
you are suffering."
 The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or
Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave them asylum from 615-28.
 Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the refugees, but
the king did not comply.
 Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain of
gold I would not give up these people who have taken refugees with
me”.
Class Discussion
1. Unlike other parts of the World, ancient Ethiopia (Abyssinia) had
exempted from forceful Islamization and Arabaization processes.
2. Expound briefly possible factors accounted for Ethiopia’s exemption
from these historical developments.
 How did Islam penetrate into Ethiopia and the Horn of
Africa?

 Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely through peaceful ways i.e.
via trade.
 At the beginning of the 8th century Islam was well established in
Dahlak Islands on the Red Sea coast.
 In the early 10th century, the Muslim community on the islands
developed a sultanate.
 Islam gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral
communities of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers
and merchants.
 Class Activity

Classroom Discussion
Unlike northern part of Ethiopia, Islam made a rapid and successful
expansion (penetration) into Southeast and eastern part of Ethiopia.

 What factor hindered Islam to made penetration into the interior part
of northern Ethiopia?

 What fertile conditions facilitated (encouraged) Islam to easily

penetrate into Southeast and Eastern part of the Ethiopian Empire?
 Important Gateways (Doors) of Islam

1. Dahlak
 Dahlak route played a minor role in the introduction of Islam into the
interior b/c Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in
Aksum and later states of northern Ethiopia and open proselytization
of Islam was prohibited.
2. Zeila
 The port of Zeila on western coast of the Gulf of Aden served as an
important gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly into the
present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
 Cont’d
 Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the eighth and
ninth centuries.
 From there, radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia
through the role of Muslim clerics
 In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a
Muslim saint (Waliy) of medieval period, played very important role
in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar cave.
 UNIT THREE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE
HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY

 From ancient time to the end of 13th century Societies in

Ethiopia and the Horn underwent political, economic, social
and cultural changes

 One remarkable change in the period was the evolution of

states.

 The period also witnessed change in socio-cultural

achievements such as architecture, writing, calendar, numerals
etc.
 3.1. Emergence of States
 Factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of agriculture.
 Following agriculture people begun to build houses near cultivated
plots,
 Families preferred to live together forming larger communities for
better security and to help each other in hard works.
 Furthermore, the growth of trade facilitated the development of
states.
 What state mean?

 State refers to an autonomous political unit having population,

defined territory, sovereignty and government with the power to
decree and enforce laws.

 Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa where early state
formation took place.

List some of early states in Ethiopia and the Horn

 3.2. ANCIENT STATES

A. PUNT

 Punt was one of the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 the exact geographic location of the state of Punt was not well
known.
 Some scholars suggested the location to northern or northeastern
Somalia while others are inclined more towards Northern Ethiopia
because of the reference to gold, ebony and monkeys.
 However many import and export trade had been conducted b/n punt
and Egypt 1st century A.D.
 B. DA’AMAT
 The state of Da’amat had a center a little to the south of Aksum.

 the politico-religious title used by king of Da’amat in the 5th century A.D.
was known as Mukarib

 some of gods and goddesses that worshiped in the state of Da’amat and
other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural centers includes

1. Almouqah (principal god),

2. Astarr (Venus god),

3. Na’uran (light god),

4.Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were similar practices in South
Arabia at the time.
 OTHER CULTURAL CENTERS IN NORTHERN ETHIOPIA

1. Yeha: was the oldest cultural centers found in northern Ethiopia.

 It probably emerged around 1, 000 BC

 the period of its prosperity (zenith) was from about 750 to 500 B.C.

 Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry as well

as standing temple and inscriptions indicate Yeha’s glory.
2. Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets
that are inscribed in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated
with paintings representing herds of cattle have been excavated.

3. Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum, the oldest

Ethiopian monumental inscription is discovered.

 There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi
Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe,
Tekonda etc.
 C. The Aksumite State

 The Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.

 According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis was the major port of

Aksum.

 The major export item of the Aksumite state consisted mainly of the

natural products such as ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and

some spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros

horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some curiosity animals

like apes.
 In turn, a number of manufactured products like garments and textiles
were imported from Egypt, India, the Roman Empire, and Persia;
 glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets,
tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from the regions of
Roman Empire and Syria were imported.
 Zoscales was the king of Aksum in that period (c. 76-89).
 Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably
with the South Arabian region, leading to exchange of ideas, material
and spiritual culture
 From the third to the seventh centuries, Aksumite kings minted and

issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for both

overseas and local transactions.

 Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman

Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time.

 It was a major naval and trading power from the first to the seventh

centuries.

 Aksum had a large fleet of ships, which was used not only for trade

but also for its wars across the Red Sea.

 Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum to south
Arabia/Yemen/.
 He was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-48).
 During the reign of Gabra Maskal that Yared developed Ethiopian
Orthodox Church liturgical songs and hymns.
 However Aksumite state begun to decline since the late seventh
century Because of internal and external challenges,
 Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and
possibly plague infestation started to weaken it.
•Externally the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs
isolating the Aksum state from its old commercial and diplomatic
partners

•This led the Aksumite state economically weak , this in turn led to the
decline of its political and military power.

•Internally Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local rebellions.

• The recurring rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al
Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state.
•However, as a civilization, Aksum had a profound impact upon the
peoples of the Horn of Africa.

achievements of Aksumite state

1. surviving indigenous script and calendar as well as EOC hymns

and chants, paintings etc.

2. diversified ceramic and lithic tools, ivory curving, and

urbanization and

3. sophisticated building traditions maintained (palaces, stele, rock-

hewn churches).

4. The state developed complex administrative and governance

 ZAGWE DYNASTY
•After the decline of Aksumite state the Zagwe elites get the opportunity

to administer the state and the Agaw became dominant.

•The founder of Zagwe dynasty was Merra Teklehaimanot and married

Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.

 After integrating with Aksumite ruling class, zagw successfully took

over the state administration.

 the Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from c. 1150 to 1270.

 Merra-Teklehaimanot latter succeeded by Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe,
Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc., and they
successively administered the state

 The Zagwe Dynasty made its center/capital in Bugna, more exactly at

Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).

 The territory of the Zagwe kingdom gradually extended to northern

Shewa in the south, the Lake Tana region and the northern part of
what is today Gojjam in the west.

 The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact.

 Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern

Mediterranean region.
 the Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings

 It was also a period of the translation of some religious works from

Arabic into Ge'ez.

 The most important export items of the Zagwe kingdom included

slaves, ivory and rare spices while

 cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, various types of drags and
newly minted coins were imported.

 Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of cave, semi-hewn
and monolithic churches:
 Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the
largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is the most finely built in the shape of
the Cross.

Why king Lalibela want to construct the church?

 To mitigate or even avoid difficulties which Ethiopian Christians

encountered in their journey to the Holy Lands by constructing
churches based on the model of Holy Lands in Israel.

 The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to internal problems of royal

succession.
 the ancient rulers of Aksum considered Zagwe kings as “illegitimate

rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba

 Later Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), took the state power proclaiming

the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty by defeating the last

Zagwe king Yitbark.

 EAST, CENTRAL, SOUTHERN, AND WESTERN STATES

A. Bizamo: -
 A kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River.
 It founded in the 8th century and had early connections with Damot.
B. Damot:-

 was a strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the
lands the south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of
Awash and east of Didessa.

 Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century.

 C. Enarya:

 It was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia.

 The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).

 Enarya's kingship was a divine one.

 The real power rested with Mikretcho (council).

D. Gafat:
 the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River.
 It was inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to Harari and
the Gurage.
 Gafat was paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom mainly in cattle,
 The state was governed by rulers bearing the title of Awalamo.
 MUSLIM SULTANATES

 Since the beginning of the eighth century, viable Muslim communities

and states had been established.
 These states includes Shewa, Fatagar, Dawaro, Bali, Ifat, and others
Shewa:-
 Khalid ibn al-Walid, founder of Makhzumite dynasty in Shewa who
claimed decent from Meca, set up the Makhzumite Sultanate in 896
A. D (283 A.H.)
 Fatagar:-
 It was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the eleventh
century.
 It was a hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat
and barley, fruits, and extensive grazing grounds full of numerous
herds of cattle, sheep and goats.
Dawaro:-
 located south of Fatagar
 Dawaro had a currency called hakuna for transaction.
Bali:-
 It was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.
 Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc.
 It had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
Ifat:-
 It was established by Umar Walasma, who claimed descent
from Hashamite clan and said to have come from Arabia
between 1271 and 1285.
 EXTERNAL CONTACTS
 Ethiopia and the Horn had earliest contact with outside world
particularly with Egypt, the Mediterranean world or the Greco-
Roman World and South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before
1,000 B.C.

 The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new pattern

of relation between the region and Egypt.

 Aksum established close relationship with the East Roman or

Byzantine Empire.
 Yet in the seven century, this relation became complicated and began
to deteriorate.
 This was due to the rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs to the near
and Middle East, North Africa and the Nile valley led to the decline of
Aksumite land routes and shipping lines.
 The coming to power of the Mamluk was followed by the reciprocal
persecution of religious minorities.
 Moreover, the Mamluk presented a barrier to the contacts between
Christian Ethiopia and European states.
 Consequently, there were considerable numbers of Ethiopian
Christian communities found in different regions, in Egyptian
monasteries, in the holy places of Palestine and Armenia, and in
Italian city-states in subsequent centuries

 The communities living in different parts of the world served as an

important link or bridge between Ethiopian Christian Kingdom and
Europe.

 They transmitted information about the EOC and its exceptional

liturgical practices.

 They also explained about the territorial extent of the Christian

Kingdom.
 From the information, the Europeans began to consider
Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very powerful and wealthy
state existing in the Horn of Africa.
 Around the middle of the 12th century, a myth about a very rich
and powerful Christian ruler known as Prester John began to
circulate in Europe.
The legend was developed when the balance of the crusade war
fought over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the
Muslims of the Middle East was in favor of the latter.
•Then, they began to search for the location of the Kingdom and to make
an alliance with it.
ECONOMIC FORMATIONS
AGRICULTURE AND LAND TENURE SYSTEM
 Agriculture was the main economic base of ancient states in highland
areas.
 Land has always been considered as one of the most precious
possessions of human society throughout history.
 The rules in which members of the society hold, share and use land is
known as the land tenure system.
 The most ancient system of land holding system in many parts of
Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system.
 Communal right to land is a group right
 Peasants in the north had Rist rights in their respective areas.
 Rist is a kind of communal birth right to land by members of the
families and clans whose ancestors had settled and lived in the area
over long periods.
 It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance to
customary law.
 The rist owners were known as bale-rist. Yet, they paid tributes to the
state
 Tribute was collected by functionaries or officials who were given
gult right over the areas and populations they administered on behalf
of the central government and said to be Bale gult
•Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as officials used to
transfer their position to their offspring.

Handicraft

 Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period and
used as an important economic activities.

 The social, economic and political conditions of ancient states had

allowed the emergence of artisans in various fields such as metal work,
pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewelry, basketry and
others.

• However the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized

• The general public attitude towards artisans was not encouraging.
 The ruling classes mostly spent their accumulated wealth on imported
luxurious items rather than the domestic technology.
Trade

 Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states

 The major socio-economic and political centers of earliest states seem

to have also been major trade centers with wide ranging contacts in
various directions within the region itself and with merchants coming
to the area across the international water bodies.
 Writing System

 Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense

contribution to the development of literature, art and the writing of
history.
 Among the Sabean, and the Geʽez script play an important role.
 The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the
ninth century BC.
 Calendar

• Calendars were developed and adopted among various peoples of

Ethiopia and the Horn.
• In their need to know and remember the times when the rains would
begin and end as well as the rise and fall of the water level.
• Oromo has been their own calendar based on astronomical
observations of moon.
• There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a year
 The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars
with 13 months a year, 12 of which are divided equally into
28 days while the thirteenth month has 29 days.
 The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado
and Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks.
 Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or
6 (is added every 4 years) which comprise a thirteenth
month.
 The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to become the
official calendar of the country.
 A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and Gregorian
calendars results from alternative calculation in determining
date of Annunciation.
 Numerals
 Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the
beginning of fourth century AD.
 Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew,
Arabic and Greek numerals,
 Socio-cultural Achievements
Architecture
 As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish.
 One of the unique architectural technologies was the engraving of
stele around the third century AD.
 There were totally fifty eight steles in and around Aksum.
 The longest one of these stele measures 33 meters heights (the first in
the world).
 It also bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a crescent
(half-moon) at the top.
 The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height and The third
longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a nine-storied
building with many windows and a false door at the bottom.
 The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest architecture of
artistic achievements of the Christian world and registered by
UNESCO as part of world cultural heritage in 1978
 Zagwe architecture used a softer material like sandstone, which was
cut and shaped all round, except the floor, into a variety of delicately
decorated churches.
 The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12
months in a year of 354 or 355 days.
 It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and his
followers made flight from Mecca to Medina and established the first
Muslim community (ummah).
 Dates in this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year of
the Hijra").
 Years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra").
Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, the
Nilotes, etc have their own dating system.
 CHAPTER FOUR
Politics, Economy and Society from the Late Thirteenth to the Beginning of the Sixteenth Centuries

 Restoration of Solomonic Dynasty

 Succession problems,
 territorial expansion,
 Evangelization,
 flourishing and development of trade as well as expansion of
extensive socio−cultural interactions among different peoples
 4.1The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty

 The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that they were

descendants of the last king of Aksum and
 legitimate to take over state power from the “illegitimate” rulers of
the Zagwe dynasty.
 As the claim has no historical evidence, the name “Restoration” is
put in quotation mark.
 Similarly, the name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation marks because
the claim of descent from King Solomon of Israel is legendary.
 Cont’d
 The claim has been elaborated in the Kibre Negest (“Glory of
Kings”).
 The Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class descended from
the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of
Israel.
 As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from YikunoAmlak to Emperor
Haile-Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.
4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion
and Religious Processes

4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal Prison’

of Amba Gishen
 Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in 1285, a political
instability caused by constant power struggles among his sons and
grandsons for succession.
 The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s five
sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299.
 However the succession problem seems to have been partly resolved
in 1300 during the reign of Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) following the
establishment of a 'royal prison' at Amba-Gishen where all male
members of the royal family were confined until one among them
was installed in power.
 Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal prison.
 When the monarch died, court dignitaries would send an army to the
royal prison to escort the designated successor and put him on the
throne.
 This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam
Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540.
 4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the
Christian Kingdom

 From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval

monarchs had no permanent capital.
 Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval
Amhara (today’s South Wollo) around Lake Haiq.
 However, it gradually shifted southward to the districts of Menz,
Tegulet, Bulga, and finally to the regions dominated by the great
height of the Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and
Zequalla mountains.
 Territorial Expansion Under Amade-Tsion (1314-1344)

 Until the coming of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), the center and the

territorial limit of the Christian Kingdom was mainly in present day
Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa.
 Amde-Tsion made wider and rapid territorial expansion.
 The Christian Kingdom controlled extensive territories during the
reign of Emperor Amde-Tsion.
 motives of his expansion were economic and political i.e. to control
the trade routes and seize territories.
 He was the most expansionist Christian king in the medieval period
 Cont’d
 Amde-Tsion expanded his territory into Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam
around 1323/4; Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7; Bete-Israel (located
between Dambiya and Tekeze River) around 1332; and the Red Sea
Coast.
 Amde-Tsion campaigned to today’s Eritrean region and appointed his
own governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which later on changed
to Bahire-Negash.
 4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob

I. Evangelization
 Christianity had a long history of expansion.
 Hence early Christians played an important role in the spread of
Christianity in several areas.
Eyesus Mo’a
 In the 13th century, Eyesus-Mo'a opened new opportunities of learning
for Christians who lived in the central part of Ethiopia and
 later evangelized the newly incorporated areas where the influence of
Christianity had either been non−existent or minimal.
 Abune Tekle-Haymanot (13th century)

 He played a key role in reviving Christianity in Shewa,

 Evangelized peoples in southern Ethiopia including medieval Damot.
 He baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity.
 II. Religious Movements

A. The Ewostatewos Movement

 Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian Orthodox
Church in the mid thirteenth century.
 The period also witnessed development religious movements known
as the Ewostatewos movement, named after the founder Abba
Ewostatewos
 Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in
present day Eritrea)
 Among his teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath.
 Cont’d
 The movement spread to areas like Enfraz, northern Tigray, and
Hamessen.
 However the King and the Abun opposed the movement.
 Hence, the anti-Ewostatewos group led by the Abbot of the Hayq
Monastery called Aqabe-Se’at SereqeBirhan was supported by the
Abun and the monarch.
 Cont’d
 Later Ewostatians were expelled from their church services and
 some of the them were forced to withdraw and settle in peripheral
areas while some of them sustained their movement in monasteries
like Debre- Bizen, Debre-San, etc.
B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
 The Estifanosites were a movement within Ethiopian monasticism,
called so after their founder and spiritual leader Abba Estifanos.
 Cont’d
 The movement rose to prominence in the 15th century and continued
until the 16th century,
 The head of the movement, Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame at
the end of the fourteenth century.
 He established a rigid monastic organization, which emphasized
poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and autonomy from
secular authorities.
 Zara-Yacob took very harsh measures against the Estifanosites b/c
their opposition of the veneration of St. Mary.
 III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob

 Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to stabilize

and consolidate the Orthodox Church.
 First, he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy in order to
create an amicable church-state relationship.
 he made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in
the Ethiopian church
 he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.
 he ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays
and get Father Confessors.
 Cont’d
 the king encouraged the establishment of a library in every church.
 This was followed by revival of religious literature.
 He himself wrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad,
MetsafeSillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister, etc.
 In addition, during his reign, some parts of Te’amreMaryam were
translated from Arabic to Geez
 4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim
Sultanates

 A number of strong sultanates had emerged since the fourteenth

century.
 Trade was one of the major factors for the rise and development of
those sates.
 Trade served not only as a source of livelihood but also a major
source of conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
sultanates.
 Muslim Sultanates includes: Adal, Shoa, Fatagar, Ifat, Dahlak,
Arbabani, Dawaro, Hadiya, etc.
 Cont’d
4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam
 Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the Ethiopian
region through Muslim merchants and preachers.
 Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the Muslim
Sultanates and at the same time served as the base of the economy of
those states.
 The most known Muslim Sultanates during this period were Ifat
(1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577).
 Cont’d
 Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that passed
through Zeila due to their geographical proximity, although contested
by “Solomonic” Kingdom especially after its revival and
consolidation.
Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates
 Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the medieval period.
 The ambition to control this trade route and commodities that passed
through Zeila led to rivalry between the “Solomonic” rulers and the
Sultanate of Ifat.
 The first recorded conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Ifat
took place in 1328 when the Muslim Sultanates organized their armies
to take military action against the Christian Kingdom.
 The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to the
Christian King, Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods, capturing, and
imprisoning the king's agent, Ti’iyintay returning from Cairo.
 These actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against
Haqaddin I; defeated and took him prisoner and eventually replaced
him by his brother Sabradin.
 Both Ifat and Fatagar came under Sabradin
 Cont’d
 Ifat was defeated and Sabradin was captured during his retreat.
 As a result, Ifat, Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated.
 Amde-Tsion required from them annual tributes and freedom of
movement for all caravans through Zeila.
 Following the decline of Ifat, other Muslim Sultanates like Sharkha,
Bali, Dara, and Arbabani were also seriously weakened.
 Cont’d
 To check their attacks on the highlands, the successors of Emperor
Amde-Tsion conducted repeated campaigns into the lowlands.
 In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and
rebelled against Neway-Maryam (r. 1371-80), the son of Amde-Tsion.
 However, he died fighting in 1386.
 Similarly, the successor of Haqadin II, Sa’d ad-Din II (c. 1386-1402)
gained initial success until king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3
extended his expansion and defeated him.
 Cont’d
 Adal continued to challenge the Christian state and were successful in
killing Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq.
 This led to intense struggle for predominance.
 In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the battle of
Yeguba.
 among the various Sultans of the Muslim sultanates, Emir Mahfuz
carried out some effective military campaigns into the highlands.
 In 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor Lebne-Dengel's
(r. 1508-40) force.
 Cont’d
 Latter his son-in-law, Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi,
popularly known as Ahmed Gragn or the "left-handed" took over
the leadership.
 Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-economic and
cultural interactions between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
principalities.
 Trade continued to be the major channel of social integration.
 It had long been the source of friendship, interaction,
interdependence, and conflict among the states of the region.
 Merchants of the two regions often moved from the highlands to the
coast and vice versa.
 It was through such caravan merchants that the social links were
strengthened and religions spread.
 These interactions and interdependence in economic, social, cultural
and political spheres lay the foundation for modern Ethiopia.
 The development of Geez Literature

 The period witnessed the flourishing of Geez literature as is evident

from the works of Abba Giorgis Ze-Gasicha and others and
philosophies epitomzed by Zara-Ya'iqob (not to be confused with the
king).
 On the Muslim side, literature had developed including the works of
Arab writers such as Ibn Fadil al Umari, Ibn Khaldun and others
 4.5. External Relations
4.5.1. Relations with Egypt

 From the late thirteenth century onwards, the Christian Kingdom

continued to maintain relations with Egypt, which was mainly
religious in character.
 In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt’s Sultan, Baybars,
requesting an Abun from the Coptic Church.
 Furthermore, both Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as protectors
of religious minorities in their respective domain.
 Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile (the Abay River)
that originated from Ethiopia.
 Cont’d
 In the early fourteenth century, Mohammed ibn Qala’un
persecuted the Copts and destroyed their churches in Cairo.
 In response, Amde-Tsion demanded the restoration of the churches
and warned that failure to do so would result in the diversion of
the Nile waters.
 Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-
71), revealing his imprisonment by the then Egyptian Sultan.
 Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a huge army against Egypt
after which the Sultan released the patriarch and sent a delegation to
the King.
 Cont’d
 Besides, Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the
Sultan, established harmonious relations between King Dawit
and Egypt.
 The Sultan is said to have sent a piece of the "True Cross" and
in return, Dawit is said to have given a number of religious
paintings to the Sultan.
 Cont’d
 In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan
Barsbay requesting the protection of Christians in Egypt.
 Three years later, however, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote
Zara-Yaqob a letter stating the demolition of the famous
church of Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq).
 Then ZaraYaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53)
with a strongly worded letter.
 In reply to this message, Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia,
with complimentary gifts to the King but rejected the
reconstruction of the church.
 4.5.2. Relations with Christian Europe

 As with the Muslim Arab world, the Christian Kingdom maintained relations
with Christian Europe.

 During the medieval period, contacts between the two regions were strongly
influenced by the legend of “Prester John”.

 This was followed by sustained relations in subsequent decades.

 For example, it is stated that Ethiopian delegation was in attendance of Gian

Galeazzo Visconti’s coronation in Milan in 1395.

 In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance. In another

report, message from an Ethiopian monarch, Amde-Tsion was presented to
 Cont’d
 The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is
the letter of King Henry IV of England dated 1400 A.D. and
addressed to “Prester John”, the purported king of the Christian
Kingdom.
 The identification of the King with “Prester John” was firmly
established in the fourteenth century.
 They even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem with the
help of this King.
 Hence, during the reign of King Dawit, the leaders of Rome,
Constantinople, Syria, Armenia and Egypt sent letters to the king
in which they asked for support.
 Cont’d
 King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly of
Florentines.
 In 1402, King Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by a
Florentine man called Antonio Bartoli.

 The beginning and continued rivalry between the Christian Kingdom

and Muslim Sultanates in the fifteenth century strengthened the
relation between the Christian Kingdom and Christian Europe.
 Queen Elleni

 Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married to King

Zara Yaeqob) played an important role in the strengthening of these
relations.
 She had foreseen the threat that came from the Ottoman Turkish who
showed a clear interest to support the Muslim Sultanates.
 She also had foreseen the possibility of consolidating relations with
and getting support from Portugal that was against the Turks.
 Cont’d
 In 1508, Portugal sent an envoy to act as an ambassador to Christian
Ethiopia.
 Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-Dengel
sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal.
 The Portuguese court doubted his authenticity and was received
coldly.
 The Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba
and Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 and remained for six
years.
 The objective was to establish a naval port against the expanding
Turkish power in Red Sea Area.
 The mission was not successful.