Chapter 3: Wave Optics

▪ simplified scalar wave theory; describes INTERFERENCE,

DIFFRACTION, phase & group velocities of light waves

Contents of Chapter 3

3.1 Wave Equation - harmonic 3.7 Huygen-Fresnel principle

waveforms: plane spherical & 3.8 Fraunhofer diffraction – single
cylindrical slit, circular aperture, Rayleigh
3.2 Electromagnetic waves & criterion, multiple slits
superposition (diffraction grating)
3.3 Two-beam interference &
Young’s double slit
✔ 3.4 Interference in dielectric films
✔ 3.5 Multiple beam interference
3.6 Optical interferometry:
Michelson & Fabry-Perot d05b0u
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Light Interference from thin dielectric film
• Interference in dielectric films
• Application (anti-reflecting coating)
• Fringes of equal thickness
• Interference method to measure film
thickness
• Newton’s rings
• Stokes relations
• Multiple-beam interference

2
3
4
Interference in Dielectric films (amplitude division):

❑ Considered as double-
P
beam interference from a
2
film
1 5 Transparent ❑ Rays reflected from the
n0 film top and bottom plane
A C surfaces of the film are
nf 3 t brought together to
B interfere at P by a lens
ns Substrate
4

Thin transparent film – oil slick, metal oxide layer,

evaporated coating on a flat, glass substrate
• Incident ray (1) hits A, splits into reflected (2) and refracted (3) rays
• Refracted ray (3) is then reflected at B
• Reflected ray (4) gets refracted into n0 at C, emerging as ray (5)

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Interference in Dielectric films:

❑ Original beam is separated into two parts,

reflected and refracted portions
(AMPLITUDE DIVISION), and, finally
allowed to recombine and interfere (rays 2 &
5) at P
❑ Multiple reflections may occur within film layer
(dashed blue lines) until intensity is lost; and
corresponding multiple rays emerge from film
❑ Assuming reflectance is small, hence, we need only
to consider 1st and 2nd emerging rays (2) & (5); the
other rays have very low irradiances
❑ The two rays (2) & (5) traversed different optical
paths and have relative phase difference (additional
phase shift due to external reflection), resulting in
constructive & destructive interferences at P

6
Interference in Dielectric films:
To find the optical path difference between rays (2) & (5):
D
(2)
(1)
θi θi (5)
θi
n0 G
A C
θt
nf
(3) θt θt t
(4)

B
ns

❑ Optical path difference between emerging beams (2) & (5) is:

But AB = BC; hence

7
 D
Interference in Dielectric films: (1) (2)
(5)
θi θi θ
n0 G i
A C
nf θt θt θt t
(3) (4)

ns B

❑ Next, from triangle AGB;

❑ Hence,

(in terms of refracted angle, θt) … (a)

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Interference in Dielectric films:

… (b)

o Δ = optical path difference (in unit of length)

• The corresponding phase difference is:

9
 Interference in Dielectric films:

Case Phase shift on reflection Phase shift on reflection at Net relative phase shift Δr
at top surface (Beam 2) bottom surface (Beam 5) between beams (2) & (5)
(A) π or λ/2 (if n0 < nf) π or λ/2 (if nf < ns) 0
(B) π or λ/2 (if n0 < nf) 0 (if nf > ns) π or λ/2
(C) 0 (if n0 > nf) 0 (if nf > ns) 0

• Possible additional relative phase shift Δr due to reflection must be included,

hence the conditions for constructive and destructive interferences are
Constructive interference:
Destructive interference:

(1) (2)
D where Δp ≡ optical path difference
(5)
θi θi θi Δr ≡ equivalent path difference arising
n0 G
A C
from phase change on reflection
nf θt θt θt t
(3) (4)

ns B
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Interference in Dielectric films:

Case (A): (constructive interference) m = 0,1,2,3, …

(destructive interference)

Case (B): (constructive interference)

(destructive interference)

Case (C): (constructive interference)

same as (A) (destructive interference)

For normal incidence :

Corresponding phase difference :
Taking into account relative phase shift (as in case (B)) :

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Application of Interference in Dielectric films

(2)
(5)
n0 = 1 (air)

nf
A C t

B
ns

[Consider normal incidence]

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• Destructive interference occurs at λ0
and to some extent at neighbouring
wavelengths λ0 ± dλ
→ So, reflected light from the film has
the incident spectrum minus the
wavelength region λ0 ± dλ
→ For white light incident on film, the
reflected light is coloured because of
this subtracted wavelength region
• Extinction is more efficient if
amplitudes of two reflected beams
are equal (total destruction)

Reflected light is white Reflected light is coloured

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14
Fringes of equal thickness (Fizeau fringes)
BS set at 45° to incident Air wedge formed with 2
beam so that light strikes microscopic slides with a thin
film at normal incidence spacer at one end, its thickness t
and part of reflected light
increases to the right
can be transmitted into
detector
Thin spacer – hair, wire, etc

45°

(extended)

Arrangement of
apparatus to view
interference from a
wedge-shaped film
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 internal
reflection
air

glass air
glass

external
reflection

16
Interference method to measure film-thickness :
(uses fringes of equal thickness)
Arrangement:
Monochromatic light from LS
channeled to prism beam splitter
BS through fiber optics cable LP
At BS, one beam is transmitted
to flat mirror M and other to film
surface
After reflection at M and film
surface F, two beams are
transmitted by BS into Interference fringes
microscope MS and interference produced by light
occurs reflected from the
Beam reflected from M can be film surface and
considered to come from virtual substrate used to
determine film
image M’
thickness d.

Thus, interference patterns results from Light beam covers

interference due to air film between reflecting film edge
plane at M’ and film F 17
• Mirror M can be moved toward or away from beam splitter to equalize optical
path lengths.
• Mirror M can also be tilted to make M’ more or less parallel to film surface
• When M’ and film surface are not precisely parallel, Fizeau fringes due to a wedge
will be observed through microscope
• Light beam striking film will cover edge of film F, so that two fringe systems are
seen side by side

1 2 3

2
Valley-like channel in 1 3
interference pattern due to
depression in film surface
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• The shift in the two interferences pattern corresponds to the difference in
thickness in the air films at their juncture (joining part).

M’ At film:
tF tS
F d
At substrate S:
S
Difference:
juncture

(t = thickness of air film at some point)

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20
Newton’s rings :

Geometry for production

Newton’s rings of Newton’s rings
apparatus.

Interference fringes of equal thickness produced by air wedge between lens and optical flat.

Equal-thickness contours for a perfectly spherical surface results in concentric circles

around point of contact with optical flat
At point of contact t = 0 (corresponds to m = 0), it appears dark (destructive
interference) because Δr = λ/2 due to reflection 21
(a) (b)

Newton’s rings in (a) reflected light and

(b) transmitted light are complimentary

Newton’s rings can also be

observed through light
transmitted through optical flat,
but, has poor contrast (incomplete
cancellation in destructive
interference) and bright centre.

22
Newton’s rings (quantitative example):

Problem:
Plano-convex lens (n = 1.523) of 0.125 Diopter power is placed, convex surface down, on
an optically flat surface. Using a travelling microscope and sodium light (λ = 589.3 nm),
interference fringes are observed. Determine the radii of 1st and 10th dark rings.
Solution:
relative phase difference: Δr = λ/2
Condition for dark fringe: 2nftm + ½λ = (m + ½) λ → tm = m λ / 2nf
Film is in air, nf = 1, thus,
Ring radius given by: (neglecting very small term tm2, we have
)
Radius of curvature from lensmaker’s equation:

f = 1/P = 1/0.125 = 8 m, n = 1.523, R2 → ∞, thus, R1 = R = 4.184 m.

Then,

23
 Stokes Relations
•

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_
George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet 24
Stokes
Relations

Snell’s law
applies

25
Stokes
Relations

Stokes
relations

Stokes relations
agree with results
using Fresnel Eqs.
26
 Multiple-beam interference in a parallel plate
Multiple parallel beams emerge

u = upper

Parallel
plate
b = bottom

and train of
Prime notation reflections
denotes internal progresses…
reflection
interference occur when multiple parallel beams 27
emerging are focused to a point by converging lens
 Multiple-beam interference in a parallel plate

Emerging rays from top Expression

Reflected ray (1)
Reflected ray (2)
Reflected ray (3)
Reflected ray (4)
Reflected ray (5)
Reflected ray (6)

Reflected ray (Nth)

⮚ The Nth expression does not hold for E1 because it did not traverse the plate
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Multiple-beam interference in a parallel plate

29
Multiple-beam interference in a parallel plate

30
Multiple-beam interference in a parallel plate

31
Multiple-beam interference in a parallel plate

32
Multiple-beam interference in a parallel plate

33
 Multiple-beam interference in a parallel plate

▪ This parallel plates arrangement can be used as Fabry-Perot interferometer

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 Learning Outcomes
❑ Can explain how interference fringes are produced
in thin dielectric film
❑ Can derive equation to obtain dark and bright
fringes of the interference above
❑ Can describe applications (anti-reflective coating,
film thickness measurement)
❑ Can explain Fizeau fringes
❑ Can explain formation of Newton’s rings
❑ Can describe Stokes relations
❑ Can explain and derive expressions for irradiance
of reflected and transmitted beams using Stokes
relations in multiple beam interference
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