Energy Systems Analysis One

25753

Distribution Systems

Dr. Vakilian
Dec. 2023
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
• Distribution Systems presented as ending section of
power system which serve the loads
• It is combined of two major sections:
A- The Primary circuit
B- The Secondary circuit
• In past major attention devoted to analysis of
transmission system, with little or no analysis of
distribution system
• That has changed in last Three Decades
• Computational tools (computer programs) have
become available: to accurately model interesting
operating characteristics of unbalanced three phase
distribution feeders
 A Diagram of Different
Parts of Network
• Including Primary and Secondary Distributions
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
• Distribution system Computer programs for power flow
studies can be run to simulate present loading
conditions & for long-range planning of new facilities
• Tools also provide an opportunity for distribution
engineer to optimize capacitor placement to minimize
the losses
• Different switching scenarios for normal and
emergency conditions can be simulated
• Short-circuit studies provide necessary data for
development of reliable coordinated protection plan for
fuses, re-closers, and relay/circuit breakers.
• So, distribution engineer now has the needed tools
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
• So, what is the problem? Armed with available commercial
computer programs, if user prepare incorrect data will get
incorrect outputs from programs
• Lack of understanding the models & a general feel for
operating characteristics of distribution system  serious
design errors and operational procedures may result
• User must fully understand the models & analysis techniques
of the program
• Therefore it is necessary first to present a general overall
feeling for operating characteristics of a distribution system
• Before using a computer program it is extremely important to
have a feel for what the answers should be?
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Next slide: shows major components of a power system
• of these components distribution system traditionally
characterized as most unglamorous component
• distribution systems continued to deliver power to ultimate
user’s meter with little or no analysis (up to about 3 last decade)
• As a direct result: the distribution system were typically over-
designed
• Times has changed & it is very important to operate a
distribution system at its maximum capacity (optimum loading)
• Questions to be answered:
1- what is the maximum capacity
2- How do we determine this capacity
3- what are operating limits to be satisfied
4- what can be done to operate distribution system within
operating limits
5- what can be done to make distribution system operate more
efficiently
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

• Major Power System Components

• All these questions can be answered if

distribution system is modeled accurately
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

• The distribution system typically starts with

distribution substation that is fed by one or
more sub-transmission lines
• Each distribution substation serve one or more
primary feeders
• Most feeders are radial, which means there is
one path for power to flow from distribution
substation to user
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• One line diagram of a very simple distribution
substation
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• There are switching for High-side and Low-side
• Circuit breakers may be used
• Low-voltage switching with relay/CB combination
• In many cases re-closers used instead of relay/CB
• Some substation designs include low-voltage bus CBs
in addition to feeder’s CB
• Distribution voltage levels
some of the common levels are:
34.5 kV, 23.9 kV, 14.4 kV, 13.2 kV, 12.47 kV, in older
systems 4.16 kV
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Voltage Regulation: as load on feeders varies, voltage drop
between substation & user varies
• Use of LTC & its use not only on bus but on feeders
• Protection: substation protected against short circuits, simplest
one are fuses, & as substation design become more complex
more extensive protective schemes employed.
• Individual feeder CBs or re-closers used to provide interruption
of Short Circuits that occur outside substation
• Metering: every substation has some form of metering
• This may be as simple as one analog ammeter displaying
present value of current as well as the minimum & maximum
value of current, voltage, power, P.F., over a specified time
range (typically 15, 30, 60 minutes)
• Digital meters may monitor output of each substation
transformer and/or output of each feeder
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• A more comprehensive substation layout
shown below
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• In last slide, substation has two load tap-changing
transformers, serves four distribution feeders
• And is fed from two sub-transmission lines
• Under normal conditions, CB positions are :

• CBs closed: X,Y, 1, 3, 4, 6

• CBs Open: Z, 2, 5
• In fact there are unlimited number of substation
configurations possible.
• It Is up to design engineer to create a design that
provides the basic requirements & the most reliable
service economically
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Types of Delivery Systems
• The part considered “Distribution” i.e. from bulk supply
substation to meter at consumer’s premises divided
into two subdivisions:
• A- Primary Distribution,
carries load at higher than utilization voltages from
substation to point where voltage is stepped down to
value at which energy utilized by consumer
• B- Secondary Distribution
Includes that part of system operating at utilization
voltages, up to meter at consumer premises
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Primary Distribution
• Primary distribution systems include 3 basic
types:
1- Radial systems, including duplicate and
throwover systems
2- Loop systems, including both open and
closed loops
3- Primary network systems
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Radial Feeders: below shows a simple distribution feeder
(Nodes: connecting points of components)
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Distribution Feeder Map
• Analysis of a distribution feeder is important to
determine existing operating conditions of a feeder
• However before engineer can perform analysis of a
feeder a detailed map of feeder must be available
• A sample of such map shown in next slide which
contains most of following information:
1- Lines: location, length, conductor size (not in this
map), phasing
2-Distribution transformers (location, kVA rating,
phase connection)
3- In-line transformers, shunt capacitor, voltage
regulators, switches (location, N.O./C.S.)
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• A sample feeder Map
 Introduction to:
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Distribution Feeder Electrical Characteristics
• Information from map will define physical location of
various devices
• Electrical characteristics for each device to be
determined before analysis of feeder commence
• To determine electrical characteristics following data
must be available:
1- Overhead & underground spacings
2- Conductor tables: (GMR), Diameter, resistance
3- Voltage regulators (PT ratios, CT ratios,
Compensator settings: voltage level, bandwidth, R
& X settings in Volts)
4-Transformers (kVA, Voltage, Impedance(R & X), No-
load power loss)
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• The laterals usually connected to primary main
through fuses, so a fault on laterals will not cause
interruption of entire feeder
• Should the fuse fail to clear the line, C.B. back at
substation or source will open & entire feeder will be
de-energized
• To reduce the extent & duration of interruption,
provisions are made to sectionalize feeder so that un-
faulted portions may be reenergized as quickly as
practical
• To maximize such re-energization, emergency ties to
adjacent feeders incorporated in design &
construction, thus each part of feeder not in trouble
can be tied to an adjacent feeder
• Supply to hospitals, military establishments, & other
sensitive consumers not able to tolerate any long
interruption
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• In such cases a second feeder may be
provided
• Switching from normal to alternative feeder may
be accomplished by a throw-over switching
arrangement that may be operated manually or
automatically
• In many cases two separate C.B.s one on each
feeder with electrical interlocks (to prevent
connecting a good feeder to one in trouble)
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Loop Systems (open loop & Closed loop)
• Another means of restricting duration of
interruption employs feeders designs as loops,
which provide a two-way primary feed for
critical consumers
• Should the supply from one direction fail, entire
load of feeder may be carried from other end
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Such loops not normally closed, since a fault would
cause breakers (or fuses) at both ends to open,
leaving the entire feeder de-energized
• Closed loop: where a higher degree of reliability is
desired, feeder may be operated as a closed loop
• Breakers actuated by relays, which operate to open
only circuit breakers on each end of faulted section,
leaving the remaining portion of entire feeder
energized
• In past proper relay operation can only be achieved
by means of pilot wires which run from circuit breaker
to circuit breaker
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Closed Loop Circuit

• To hold down costs, circuit breakers may be

installed only between certain sections of the
feeder loop, and less expensive disconnecting
devices installed between intermediate sections
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Primary Network Systems
• This system is formed by tying together primary mains
found in radial systems to form a mesh or grid

• The grid is supplied by a number of power transformers

supplied in turn from sub-transmission & transmission lines at
higher voltages
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Definitions (related to load in distribution)
• load that individual customer (or group of customer) presents to
distribution system is constantly changing
• Demand: Load averaged over a specific period of time,
• Maximum demand: greatest of all demands, which occur during
a specific time
• Average demand: average of demands over a specified period
and units
• Diversified demand: sum of demands imposed by a group of
loads over a particular period
• Demand Factor = [Maximum Demand]/[Total Connected Load]
• Utilization Factor=
[Maximum Demand]/[Transformer kVA rating]
• Diversity Factor =
[Max. Non. Coincident Demand] / [Max. Diversified Demand]
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Secondary Distribution
• Secondary dis. systems operates at relatively low
voltages & considers reliability & voltage regulation to
be satisfied (230 Volts single phase & 400 Volts three
phase)
• Secondary system may be of four general types:
1- an individual transformer for each customer
2- a common secondary main associated with one
transformer from which a group of consumers
supplied
3- a continuous secondary main associated with two or more
transformers connected to same primary feeder (named
banking of transformer secondaries)
4- a continuous secondary main or grid fed by a number of
transformers connected to two or more primary feeders, from
which a large group of consumer supplied
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Individual Transformer-single service
• Is employed for loads that are more or less
isolated
• Used for consumers where they are far apart in
rural areas, or where a particular consumer has
an extraordinarily large or unusual load
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Common Secondary Main
• Is most common type of secondary system
• It takes advantage of diversity between
consumers loads & demands
• larger transformer provide starting currents of
motors with less voltage dip than would be the
case with small individual transformers
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

• In many instances, secondary mains installed

are more or less continuous, but cut into
sections insulated from each other as
conditions required
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Banked Secondaries
• Is not very commonly used
• This may be viewed as a single-feeder low-
voltage network, and secondary may be a long
section or grid to which transformers are
connected
• In this type more capacity available for inrush
currents that may cause flicker
• The transformers banked must have very close
impedance & other characteristics, otherwise
load will not be distributed equitably among
them
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Banked secondary supply
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Secondary Networks
• Secondary networks in comparison to others provide
highest degree of service reliability & serve areas of
high load density
• secondary network is created by connecting together
the secondary mains fed from transformers supplied
by two or more primary feeders
• Automatically operated cct. B.s in secondary
connection known as “proctector”
• Protector backed with a fuse, so if protector fails to
operate, the fuse will blow & disconnect transformer
from secondary mains
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Low-voltage secondary network
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Electrical Design: Secondary System
• Secondary systems are predominantly single-phase, except for
larger commercial & industrial consumers supplied from 3
phase systems
• Number of consumers’ services & their loads, voltage drop,
size of conductors, & spacing and size of transformers are all
variables that are independent
• They are factors that should be considered in combination to
find a satisfactory design
• Certain assumptions can be made safely:
1- load uniformly distributed along a secondary
2- length of secondary cct. fixed & each city block could be fed
by one or more secondary ccts
3- in practice, number & size of conductors & transformers are
limited, usually two or three in number, and to certain
standard sizes
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Conductor Size
• It may be well to begin with conductor size
determination
• Loading on each half of cct. (each direction
from transformer) can be expressed as load
density in kW / km
• Voltage drop
• load assumed connected at midpoint of
secondary main between transformer & the last
consumer, i.e. one quarter of length of
conductor from transformer
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Total load connected to ½ the cct. Is converted
into a coincident max. demand in A
• The result will provide max. permissible
resistance of conductor on basis of its length
(1/4 cct) resistance per unit length can be
determined
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• “A. J. Pansini” Approach to determine conductor
size & losses

• To simulate for the voltage drop, the

load density on secondary cct. Length is
P/l  I=P/(V.l)  ∫ P/(V.l) R dl= PR/
l/2
V . ln(l) |0 = P/V x R l/4 it means load
should be concentrated and put on fourth
of total length
• And to simulate for the losses
l
∫(P/Vl)^2 R dl=(P/V)^2 R (-1/3)[1/l]0
=(P/V)^2 R l/3
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Another approach “W.H. Kersting” on detailed load
analysis
• Therefore first we need to review the nature of loads
and how to model it
• The steady state analysis of an interconnected
transmission system requires a different definition of
load than that used in analysis of a secondary in a
distribution feeder
• The problem is that the load is constantly changing
• The closer you are to the customer the more
pronounced is the ever-changing load
• There is no such a thing as “steady state” load
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Definitions, & their applications
• load that an individual customer, or group of
customers, presents to distribution system is
constantly changing
• Every time a light bulb or an electrical appliance
switched on or off load seen by distribution
feeder changes
• To describe the changing load the following
terms employed
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Individual customer load
• Figure shows how instantaneous kW load of a
customer changes during two 15-min intervals
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• [1] DEMAND
• In last figure, the straight horizontal lines
represent average value of demand (in
selected 15 min intervals)
• The shorter the time interval, more accurate
the value of load
• Av. Value of load in an interval , defined as
“15 min kW Demand”
• 24 hr, (in 15 min intervals) kW demand of a
customer shown next
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Customer No. 1: 24 hr, demand curve
• (by :W.H. Kersting, Dis. Sys. Modeling & Anal.)
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• [2] Maximum Demand
• Demand curve of last Fig., a typical residential
customer
• Each bar represents 15 min kW demand
• This customer, has 3 periods with kW demand
exceeding 6 kW
• Greatest of those three named: 15-min
maximum kW demand
• For this customer : 15-min max. kW demand
occurs at 13:15 , & its value is 6.18 kW
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• [3] Average Demand
• During 24-hr period, energy (kWh) consumed
• Energy during each 15-min interval determined as
follows:
kWh = (15 min-kW-demand) . ¼ hr
• total energy consumed in day, is summation of all 15-
min interval consumptions
• From spreadsheet, total energy consumed during the
day by customer No. 1 is 58.96 kWh
• Then the 15-min average demand is :
Average demand=Total energy cons. / hrs
=58.96/24=2.46 kW
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• [4] Load Factor
• Load factor is a term often referred to when describing
a load
• L.F. defined as ratio of :
Average demand / Max. demand
• in many ways, load factor gives an indication of how
well utility’s facilities being utilized
• From utility’s stand point, optimal load factor would be
1.00 as system has to be designed to handle Max.
demand
• Sometimes utility companies encourage industrial
customers to improve their L.F.
• One method: to penalize customer on electric bill for
having a low load factor
• Customer No. 1, L.F. = Av. 15min kW demand/ Max.
15 min kW demand = 2.46/6.18 = 0.40
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Distribution Transformer Loading
• A distribution transformer provide service to
one or more customers
• Each customer will have a demand curve
• However, the peaks, valleys & max. demands
will be different for each customer
• Next figures give demand curves for 3
additional customers connected to same
distribution transformer
• This curves show that each customer has its
unique loading characteristic
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Customer No. 2: 24 demand curve
• (by :W.H. Kersting ,Dis. Sys. Modeling & Anal.)
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Customer No. 3: 24 demand curve
• (by :W.H. Kersting ,Dis. Sys. Modeling & Anal.)
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Customer No. 4: 24 demand curve
• (by :W.H. Kersting ,Dis. Sys. Modeling & Anal.)
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• In those four demand curves, individual Max. kW
demand occurs at different times of day
• Customers No. 3 is the only one with high L.F.
• Summary of individual loads in Table below

• A great diversity exists among the customers loads

 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• [5] Max. Diversified Demand
• Transformer demand curve for this transformer
shown next
• Note: how demand curve is beginning to
smooth out
• There are not as many significant changes as
seen by some individual customer curves
• For transformer, 15min kW demand exceeds 16
kW twice
• Greater of these is 15 min Max. diversified kW
demand of transformer:
• occurs at 17:30, and it is 16.16 kW
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Transformer Diversified Demand Curve
• (by :W.H. Kersting ,Dis. Sys. Modeling & Anal.)
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• [6] Load Duration Curve
• A load duration curve, can be developed for
transformer, by sorting descending order the kW
demand
• load duration curve plots 15 min kW demand versus
percent of time transformer operates at or above
specific demand
• For example, load duration curve shows, transformer
operates with a 15 min kW demand of 12 kW or
greater 22% of time
• This curve can be used to determine whether or not
transformer needs to be replaced due to an
overloading condition
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Transformer Load Duration Curve
• (by :W.H. Kersting ,Dis. Sys. Modeling & Anal.)
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• [7] Maximum Non-Coincident Demand
• 15 min Max. non-coincident kW demand for the day is
sum of individual customer 15 min Max. kW demands
• Max non-coincident demand for this transformer is the
sum of individual maximums:= 6.18+ 6.82+4.93+7.05
= 24.98 kW
• [8] Diversity Factor (DF)
• Is the ratio of Max. noncoincident demand of a group
of customers to Max. diversified demand of the group
• DF=Max. noncoinc. Demand / Max. diver. Demand
=24.98/16.16=1.5458
or coincidence factor of: 1/1.5458= 0.6469=64. 7 %
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Idea behind DF is that when Max. demands of customers are
known, then Max. diversified demand of a group can be
computed
• There will be a different value of DF for different numbers of
customers
• for the 4 customer case, if the number of customers increases
to 5, then a load survey would have to be set up to determine
DF for 5 customers
• This process should be repeated for all practical number of
customers
• Next Table is an example of DFs when number of customers
ranging from one to 70
• Table developed from a different data base than 4 customer
case
• It is shown that DF is leveled out when number of customers
reached 70
• As viewed by substation, max. diversified demand of a feeder
can be predicted by computing total noncoincident maximum
demand of all customers served by feeder & dividing by 3.2
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Diversity Factor (records for 1 to 70 customers)
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• [9] Demand Factor
• can be defined for an individual customer. For example 15 min
max. kW demand of customer No. 1 found to be 6.18 kW
• To determine demand factor, the total connected load of
customer needs to be known
• Total connected load is the sum of ratings of all electrical
devices at customer’s location
• If the total of this is 35 kW, the demand factor would be:
Demand factor= Max Demand/ Total connected load =
6.18 / 35= 0.1766
Demand factor gives an indication of percentage of electrical
devices that are on when max. demand occurs
Demand factor can be computed for an individual customer,
and not for a distribution transformer or total feeder
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• [10] Utilization factor
• Gives an indication of how well capacity of an
electrical device is utilized
• For example, the transformer serving the four loads is
rated 15 kVA
• Using 16.16 kW Max. diversified demand & assuming
a P.F. of 0.9, 15 min Max. kVA demand on
transformer is computed by dividing 16.16 kW max.
kW demand by P.F., & is 17.96 kVA
• U.F. =max. kVA demand / Transformer kVA
rating=17.96/15=1.197
• [11] Load diversity
• Is difference between noncoincident max. demand &
max. diversified demand for transformer
Load diversity = 24.97-16.16=8.81 kVA