PRESSURE

68 kg 136 kg
Pressure: A normal force exerted
by a fluid per unit area

Afeet=300cm2

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2

The normal stress (or “pressure”) on the

feet of a chubby person is much greater
than on the feet of a slim person.

Some basic
pressure
gages.
1
• Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
• Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
• Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout
this text, the
pressure P
will denote
absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.

2
Variation of Pressure with Depth
To obtain a relation for the variation of pressure with
depth, consider a rectangular fluid element of height
Az, length Ax, and unit depth (into the page) in
equilibrium, as shown in Figure . Assuming the
density of the fluid p to be constant, a force balance
in the vertical z-direction gives:
∑ Fz = maz = 0
P2 ∆x – P1 ∆x – pg ∆x ∆z = 0

3
Variation of Pressure with Depth...........
When the variation of density
with elevation is known

The pressure of a fluid at rest Free-body diagram of a rectangular

increases with depth (as a fluid element in equilibrium.
result of added weight). 4
Use Class Notes for this Derivation

5
Why there is negative sign in formula

The negative sign is due to our taking the

positive z direction to be upward
so that dP is negative when dz is positive since
pressure decreases in an upward direction.

Same Reason has been explained in class 6

You may use mine technique
instead of this conversion.
Explained in class

7
Unit Conversion/ Easy Approach (optional)

For Kilo Pascal , you will simply

divide the answer (Pascal) with
1000. 8
 In a room filled with
a gas, the variation
of pressure with
height is negligible.
Actually weight of
gas is too small.

Pressure in a liquid
at rest increases
linearly with
distance from the
free surface.
The pressure is the
same at all points on
a horizontal plane in
a given fluid
regardless of
geometry, provided
that the points are
interconnected by the
same fluid.
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Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is

called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.

Lifting of a large weight

by a small force by the
application of Pascal’s
law. 10
The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the
pressure drop across a
flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.

The basic
manometer.

In stacked-up fluid layers, the

pressure change across a fluid layer
of density  and height h is gh. 11
You may use mine technique
instead of this conversion.
Explained in class 12
Other Pressure Measurement Devices
• Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube
bent like a hook whose end is closed and
connected to a dial indicator needle.
• Pressure transducers: Use various techniques
to convert the pressure effect to an electrical
effect such as a change in voltage, resistance,
or capacitance.
• Pressure transducers are smaller and faster,
and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and
precise than their mechanical counterparts.
• Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by
having a diaphragm deflect between two
chambers open to the pressure inputs.
• Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-
state pressure transducers, work on the
principle that an electric potential is generated in
a crystalline substance when it is subjected to
mechanical pressure.

Various types of Bourdon tubes used

13
to measure pressure.
PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
• Step 1: Problem Statement
• Step 2: Schematic
• Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
• Step 4: Physical Laws
• Step 5: Properties
• Step 6: Calculations
• Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

EES (Engineering Equation Solver) (Pronounced as ease):

EES is a program that solves systems of linear or nonlinear
algebraic or differential equations numerically. It has a large
library of built-in thermodynamic property functions as well as
mathematical functions. Unlike some software packages, EES
does not solve engineering problems; it only solves the equations
supplied by the user. 14
Summary
• Thermodynamics and energy
 Application areas of thermodynamics
• Importance of dimensions and units
 Some SI and English units, Dimensional homogeneity,
Unity conversion ratios
• Systems and control volumes
• Properties of a system
• Density and specific gravity
• State and equilibrium
 The state postulate
• Processes and cycles
 The steady-flow process
• Temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics
 Temperature scales
• Pressure
 Variation of pressure with depth
• The manometer and the atmospheric pressure
• Problem solving technique
15