Computer Communication &

Networks

Lecturer: Fawad Naseer

UCC - GCUF

Lecture # 01
Transport Layer
our goals:
understand learn about Internet
principles behind transport layer protocols:
transport layer  UDP: connectionless
services: transport
 multiplexing,  TCP: connection-oriented
demultiplexing reliable transport
 reliable data transfer  TCP congestion control
 flow control
 congestion control

Transport Layer 3-2

Week based roadmap
3.5 connection-oriented
3.1 transport-layer services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and demultiplexing  segment structure
3.3 connectionless transport: UDP  reliable data transfer
 flow control
3.4 principles of reliable data transfer
 connection management
3.6 principles of congestion
control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-3

Transport services and protocols
application
transport
provide logical network
data link
communication between app physical

processes running on different

lo
hosts

gi
ca
l
transport protocols run in end

en
d-
en
systems

d
tra
 send side: breaks app

ns
po
messages into segments,

rt
passes to network layer application
transport
 rcv side: reassembles network
data link
segments into messages, physical

passes to app layer

more than one transport
protocol available to apps
 Internet: TCP and UDP Transport Layer 3-4
Transport vs. network layer
network layer: household analogy:
logical
communication 12 kids in Ann’s house sending
letters to 12 kids in Bill’s
between hosts house:
transport layer: • hosts = houses
logical • processes = kids
communication • app messages = letters in
between processes envelopes
 relies on, enhances, • transport protocol = Ann
network layer and Bill who demux to in-
services house siblings
• network-layer protocol =
postal service

Transport Layer 3-5

Internet transport-layer protocols
application
• reliable, in-order transport
network

delivery (TCP) data link

physical
network

• congestion control network data link

lo
data link physical

gi
physical

ca
• flow control network

l
data link

en
physical

d-
• connection setup

en
network

d
data link

tra
• unreliable, unordered physical

ns
po
network

delivery: UDP

rt
data link
physical
network

• no-frills extension of data link

physical
network
application
transport

“best-effort” IP data link

physical
network
data link
physical

• services not available:

• delay guarantees
• bandwidth guarantees
Transport Layer 3-6
Week based roadmap
3.5 connection-oriented
3.1 transport-layer services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and demultiplexing  segment structure
3.3 connectionless transport: UDP  reliable data transfer
 flow control
3.4 principles of reliable data transfer
 connection management
3.6 principles of congestion
control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-7

Multiplexing/demultiplexing
multiplexing at sender:
handle data from multiple demultiplexing at receiver:
sockets, add transport header use header info to deliver
(later used for demultiplexing) received segments to correct
socket

application

application P1 P2 application socket

P3 transport P4
process
transport network transport
network link network
link physical link
physical physical

Transport Layer 3-8

How demultiplexing works
host receives IP datagrams 32 bits
 each datagram has source IP address,
destination IP address source port # dest port #
 each datagram carries one transport-
layer segment
 each segment has source, destination other header fields
port number
host uses IP addresses & port numbers
to direct segment to appropriate application
socket data
(payload)

TCP/UDP segment format

Transport Layer 3-9

 Connectionless demultiplexing
recall: created socket has  recall: when creating
host-local port #: datagram to send into UDP
DatagramSocket mySocket1 socket, must specify
= new  destination IP address
DatagramSocket(12534);
 destination port #

when host receives UDP IP datagrams with same

segment: dest. port #, but different
source IP addresses and/or
 checks destination port # source port numbers will
in segment be directed to same socket
 directs UDP segment to at dest
socket with that port #
Transport Layer 3-10
Connectionless demux:
example
DatagramSocket serverSocket
= new DatagramSocket
DatagramSocket (6428); DatagramSocket
mySocket2 = new mySocket1 = new
DatagramSocket DatagramSocket
(9157); application
(5775);
application application
P1
P3 P4
transport
transport transport
network
network link network
link physical link
physical physical

source port: 6428 source port: ?

dest port: 9157 dest port: ?

source port: 9157 source port: ?

dest port: 6428 dest port: ?
Transport
Lecture #Layer
01 3-11
Connection-oriented demux
TCP socket identified by server host may support
4-tuple: many simultaneous TCP
 source IP address sockets:
 source port number  each socket identified by
 dest IP address its own 4-tuple
 dest port number web servers have
demux: receiver uses all different sockets for each
four values to direct connecting client
segment to appropriate  non-persistent HTTP will
socket have different socket for
each request

Transport Layer 3-12

 Connection-oriented demux:
example
application
application P4 P5 P6 application
P3 P2 P3
transport
transport transport
network
network link network
link physical link
physical server: IP physical
address B

host: IP source IP,port: B,80 host: IP

address A dest IP,port: A,9157 source IP,port: C,5775 address C
dest IP,port: B,80
source IP,port: A,9157
dest IP, port: B,80
source IP,port: C,9157
dest IP,port: B,80
three segments, all destined to IP address: B,
dest port: 80 are demultiplexed to different
Lecturesockets
Transport #Layer
01 3-13
 Connection-oriented demux:
example
threaded server
application
application application
P4
P3 P2 P3
transport
transport transport
network
network link network
link physical link
physical server: IP physical
address B

host: IP source IP,port: B,80 host: IP

address A dest IP,port: A,9157 source IP,port: C,5775 address C
dest IP,port: B,80
source IP,port: A,9157
dest IP, port: B,80
source IP,port: C,9157
dest IP,port: B,80

Transport
Lecture #Layer
01 3-14
Week based roadmap
3.5 connection-oriented
3.1 transport-layer services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and demultiplexing  segment structure
3.3 connectionless transport: UDP  reliable data transfer
 flow control
3.4 principles of reliable data transfer
 connection management
3.6 principles of congestion
control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-15

UDP: User Datagram Protocol [RFC 768]
• “no frills,” “bare bones”  UDP use:
Internet transport protocol  streaming multimedia
• “best effort” service, UDP apps (loss tolerant, rate
segments may be: sensitive)
• lost  DNS
• delivered out-of-order to  SNMP
app  reliable transfer over
• connectionless: UDP:
• no handshaking between  add reliability at
UDP sender, receiver application layer
• each UDP segment  application-specific error
handled independently recovery!
of others

Transport Layer 3-16

UDP: segment header
length, in bytes of
32 bits UDP segment,
source port # dest port # including header

length checksum
why is there a UDP?
no connection establishment
application (which can add delay)
data
simple: no connection state
(payload)
at sender, receiver
small header size
no congestion control: UDP
UDP segment format can blast away as fast as
desired

Transport Layer 3-17

UDP checksum
Goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted
segment
sender: receiver:
• treat segment contents, • compute checksum of received
including header fields, as segment
sequence of 16-bit integers
• check if computed checksum
• checksum: addition (one’s equals checksum field value:
complement sum) of
segment contents • NO - error detected
• sender puts checksum • YES - no error detected.
value into UDP checksum But maybe errors
field nonetheless? More later ….

Transport Layer 3-18

Internet checksum: example

example: add two 16-bit integers

1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

wraparound 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

sum 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
checksum 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

Note: when adding numbers, a carryout from the most

significant bit needs to be added to the result

Transport
Lecture #Layer
01 3-19
Week based roadmap
3.5 connection-oriented
3.1 transport-layer services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and demultiplexing  segment structure
3.3 connectionless transport: UDP  reliable data transfer
 flow control
3.4 principles of reliable data transfer
 connection management
3.6 principles of congestion
control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-20

Principles of reliable data transfer
important in application, transport, link layers
 top-10 list of important networking topics!

 characteristics of unreliable channel will determine complexity of reliable data transfer protocol (rdt)

Transport Layer 3-21

Principles of reliable data transfer
important in application, transport, link layers
 top-10 list of important networking topics!

 characteristics of unreliable channel will determine complexity of reliable data transfer protocol (rdt)

Transport Layer 3-22

Principles of reliable data transfer
important in application, transport, link layers
 top-10 list of important networking topics!

 characteristics of unreliable channel will determine complexity of reliable data transfer protocol (rdt)

Transport Layer 3-23

 Reliable data transfer: getting started

rdt_send(): called from above, deliver_data(): called by

(e.g., by app.). Passed data to rdt to deliver data to upper
deliver to receiver upper layer

send receive
side side

udt_send(): called by rdt, rdt_rcv(): called when packet

to transfer packet over arrives on rcv-side of channel
unreliable channel to receiver

Transport Layer 3-24

Reliable data transfer: getting started
we’ll:
• incrementally develop sender, receiver sides of
reliable data transfer protocol (rdt)
• consider only unidirectional data transfer
• but control info will flow on both directions!
• use finite state machines (FSM) to specify sender,
receiver event causing state transition
actions taken on state transition
state: when in this
“state” next state state state
uniquely determined 1 event
by next event 2
actions

Transport Layer 3-25

rdt1.0: reliable transfer over a reliable channel
underlying channel perfectly reliable
 no bit errors
 no loss of packets
separate FSMs for sender, receiver:
 sender sends data into underlying channel
 receiver reads data from underlying channel

Wait for rdt_send(data) Wait for rdt_rcv(packet)

call from call from extract (packet,data)
above packet = make_pkt(data) below deliver_data(data)
udt_send(packet)

sender receiver

Transport Layer 3-26

rdt2.0: channel with bit errors
underlying channel may flip bits in packet
 checksum to detect bit errors
the question: how to recover from errors:
 acknowledgements (ACKs): receiver explicitly tells
sender that pkt received OK
 negative acknowledgements (NAKs): receiver explicitly
tells sender that pkt had errors
 sender
Howretransmits
do humans pkt on receipt offrom
recover NAK “errors”
new mechanisms in rdt2.0 (beyond rdt1.0):
during conversation?
 error detection
 receiver feedback: control msgs (ACK,NAK) rcvr->sender

Transport Layer 3-27

rdt2.0: channel with bit errors
underlying channel may flip bits in packet
 checksum to detect bit errors
the question: how to recover from errors:
 acknowledgements (ACKs): receiver explicitly tells
sender that pkt received OK
 negative acknowledgements (NAKs): receiver explicitly
tells sender that pkt had errors
 sender retransmits pkt on receipt of NAK
new mechanisms in rdt2.0 (beyond rdt1.0):
 error detection
 feedback: control msgs (ACK,NAK) from receiver to
sender

Transport Layer 3-28

rdt2.0: FSM specification
rdt_send(data)
sndpkt = make_pkt(data, checksum) receiver
udt_send(sndpkt)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
isNAK(rcvpkt)
Wait for Wait for rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
call from ACK or udt_send(sndpkt) corrupt(rcvpkt)
above NAK
udt_send(NAK)

rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && isACK(rcvpkt)

Wait for
L
call from
sender below

rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
extract(rcvpkt,data)
deliver_data(data)
udt_send(ACK)

Transport Layer 3-29

rdt2.0: operation with no errors
rdt_send(data)
snkpkt = make_pkt(data, checksum)
udt_send(sndpkt)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
isNAK(rcvpkt)
Wait for Wait for rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
call from ACK or udt_send(sndpkt) corrupt(rcvpkt)
above NAK
udt_send(NAK)

rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && isACK(rcvpkt)

Wait for
L call from
below

rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
extract(rcvpkt,data)
deliver_data(data)
udt_send(ACK)

Transport Layer 3-30

rdt2.0: error scenario
rdt_send(data)
snkpkt = make_pkt(data, checksum)
udt_send(sndpkt)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
isNAK(rcvpkt)
Wait for Wait for rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
call from ACK or udt_send(sndpkt) corrupt(rcvpkt)
above NAK
udt_send(NAK)

rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && isACK(rcvpkt)

Wait for
L call from
below

rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
extract(rcvpkt,data)
deliver_data(data)
udt_send(ACK)

Transport Layer 3-31

rdt2.0 has a fatal flaw!
what happens if handling duplicates:
ACK/NAK corrupted? • sender retransmits current
• sender doesn’t know what pkt if ACK/NAK corrupted
happened at receiver! • sender adds sequence
• can’t just retransmit: number to each pkt
possible duplicate • receiver discards (doesn’t
deliver up) duplicate pkt

stop and wait

sender sends one packet,
then waits for receiver
response
Transport Layer 3-32
rdt2.1: sender, handles garbled ACK/NAKs
rdt_send(data)
sndpkt = make_pkt(0, data, checksum)
udt_send(sndpkt) rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
( corrupt(rcvpkt) ||
Wait for Wait for
ACK or
isNAK(rcvpkt) )
call 0 from
NAK 0 udt_send(sndpkt)
above
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
&& notcorrupt(rcvpkt) rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
&& isACK(rcvpkt) && notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
&& isACK(rcvpkt)
L
L
Wait for Wait for
ACK or call 1 from
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && NAK 1 above
( corrupt(rcvpkt) ||
isNAK(rcvpkt) ) rdt_send(data)

udt_send(sndpkt) sndpkt = make_pkt(1, data, checksum)

udt_send(sndpkt)

Transport Layer 3-33

 rdt2.1: receiver, handles garbled ACK/NAKs
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
&& has_seq0(rcvpkt)
extract(rcvpkt,data)
deliver_data(data)
sndpkt = make_pkt(ACK, chksum)
udt_send(sndpkt)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
(corrupt(rcvpkt) (corrupt(rcvpkt)
sndpkt = make_pkt(NAK, chksum) sndpkt = make_pkt(NAK, chksum)
udt_send(sndpkt) udt_send(sndpkt)
Wait for Wait for
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && 0 from 1 from rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
not corrupt(rcvpkt) && below below not corrupt(rcvpkt) &&
has_seq1(rcvpkt) has_seq0(rcvpkt)
sndpkt = make_pkt(ACK, chksum) sndpkt = make_pkt(ACK, chksum)
udt_send(sndpkt) udt_send(sndpkt)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
&& has_seq1(rcvpkt)

extract(rcvpkt,data)
deliver_data(data)
sndpkt = make_pkt(ACK, chksum)
udt_send(sndpkt)

Transport Layer 3-34

 rdt2.1: discussion

receiver:
sender:
• seq
 must# added
check iftoreceived
pkt packet is duplicate
 state
• two seq.indicates
#’s (0,1)whether 0 or 1 isWhy?
will suffice. expected pkt seq #
 note:check
• must receiver can not ACK/NAK
if received know if itscorrupted
last ACK/NAK received OK at sender
• twice as many states
• state must “remember” whether “expected” pkt should have seq # of 0 or 1

Transport Layer 3-35

rdt2.2: a NAK-free protocol

same functionality as rdt2.1, using ACKs only

instead of NAK, receiver sends ACK for last pkt
received OK
 receiver must explicitly include seq # of pkt being ACKed
duplicate ACK at sender results in same action as
NAK: retransmit current pkt

Transport Layer 3-36

 rdt2.2: sender, receiver fragments
rdt_send(data)
sndpkt = make_pkt(0, data, checksum)
udt_send(sndpkt) rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
( corrupt(rcvpkt) ||
Wait for Wait for
ACK isACK(rcvpkt,1) )
call 0 from
above 0 udt_send(sndpkt)
sender FSM
fragment rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
&& notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && && isACK(rcvpkt,0)
(corrupt(rcvpkt) || L
has_seq1(rcvpkt)) Wait for receiver FSM
0 from
udt_send(sndpkt) below fragment
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
&& has_seq1(rcvpkt)
extract(rcvpkt,data)
deliver_data(data)
sndpkt = make_pkt(ACK1, chksum)
Transport
Lecture #Layer
udt_send(sndpkt) 01 3-37
 rdt3.0: channels with errors and loss

approach: sender waits

new assumption: underlying channel can also lose packets
“reasonable” amount(data,
of ACKs)
• checksum, seq. #, ACKs, retransmissions will for
time be of help … but not enough
ACK
• retransmits if no ACK
received in this time
• if pkt (or ACK) just delayed
(not lost):
• retransmission will be
duplicate, but seq. #’s
already handles this
• receiver must specify seq
# of pkt being ACKed
• requires countdown timer
Transport Layer 3-38
rdt3.0 sender
rdt_send(data)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
sndpkt = make_pkt(0, data, checksum) ( corrupt(rcvpkt) ||
udt_send(sndpkt) isACK(rcvpkt,1) )
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) start_timer L
L Wait for Wait
for timeout
call 0from
ACK0 udt_send(sndpkt)
above
start_timer
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
&& notcorrupt(rcvpkt) rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
&& isACK(rcvpkt,1) && notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
stop_timer && isACK(rcvpkt,0)
stop_timer
Wait Wait for
timeout for call 1 from
udt_send(sndpkt) ACK1 above
start_timer rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
rdt_send(data) L
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
sndpkt = make_pkt(1, data, checksum)
( corrupt(rcvpkt) || udt_send(sndpkt)
isACK(rcvpkt,0) ) start_timer
L

Transport Layer 3-39

 rdt3.0 in action
sender receiver sender receiver
send pkt0 pkt0 send pkt0 pkt0
rcv pkt0 rcv pkt0
ack0 send ack0 ack0 send ack0
rcv ack0 rcv ack0
send pkt1 pkt1 send pkt1 pkt1
rcv pkt1 X
ack1 send ack1 loss
rcv ack1
send pkt0 pkt0
rcv pkt0 timeout
ack0 send ack0 resend pkt1 pkt1
rcv pkt1
ack1 send ack1
rcv ack1
send pkt0 pkt0
(a) no loss rcv pkt0
ack0 send ack0

(b) packet loss

Transport Layer 3-40
 rdt3.0 in action
sender receiver
sender receiver send pkt0 pkt0
send pkt0 pkt0 rcv pkt0
ack0 send ack0
rcv pkt0
send ack0 rcv ack0
ack0 send pkt1 pkt1
rcv ack0 rcv pkt1
send pkt1 pkt1
rcv pkt1 send ack1
ack1 ack1
send ack1
X
loss timeout
resend pkt1 pkt1
rcv pkt1
timeout
resend pkt1 pkt1 rcv ack1 pkt0 (detect duplicate)
rcv pkt1 send pkt0 send ack1
(detect duplicate) ack1
ack1 send ack1 rcv ack1 rcv pkt0
rcv ack1 ack0 send ack0
pkt0 send pkt0 pkt0
send pkt0 rcv pkt0
rcv pkt0 ack0 (detect duplicate)
ack0 send ack0 send ack0

(c) ACK loss (d) premature timeout/ delayed ACK

Transport Layer 3-41

Performance of rdt3.0
rdt3.0 is correct, but performance stinks
e.g.: 1 Gbps link, 15 ms prop. delay, 8000 bit packet:
L 8000 bits
Dtrans = R = 9 = 8 microsecs
10 bits/sec

 U sender: utilization – fraction of time sender busy sending

U L/R .008
sender = = = 0.00027
RTT + L / R 30.008

 if RTT=30 msec, 1KB pkt every 30 msec: 33kB/sec thruput

over 1 Gbps link
 network protocol limits use of physical resources!
Transport Layer 3-42
 rdt3.0: stop-and-wait operation
sender receiver
first packet bit transmitted, t = 0
last packet bit transmitted, t = L / R

first packet bit arrives

RTT last packet bit arrives, send ACK

ACK arrives, send next

packet, t = RTT + L / R

U L/R .008
sender = = = 0.00027
RTT + L / R 30.008

Transport
Lecture #Layer
01 3-43
Pipelined protocols
pipelining: sender allows multiple, “in-flight”, yet-
to-be-acknowledged pkts
• range of sequence numbers must be increased
• buffering at sender and/or receiver

two generic forms of pipelined protocols: go-Back-N,

selective repeat
Transport Layer 3-44
 Pipelining: increased utilization
sender receiver
first packet bit transmitted, t = 0
last bit transmitted, t = L / R

first packet bit arrives

RTT last packet bit arrives, send ACK
last bit of 2nd packet arrives, send ACK
last bit of 3rd packet arrives, send ACK
ACK arrives, send next
packet, t = RTT + L / R
3-packet pipelining increases
utilization by a factor of 3!

U 3L / R .0024
sender = = = 0.00081
RTT + L / R 30.008

Transport
Lecture #Layer
01 3-45
Pipelined protocols: overview
Go-back-N: Selective Repeat:
• sender can have up to N • sender can have up to N
unacked packets in unack’ed packets in
pipeline pipeline
• receiver only sends • rcvr sends individual ack
cumulative ack for each packet
• doesn’t ack packet if
there’s a gap
• sender has timer for • sender maintains timer for
oldest unacked packet each unacked packet
• when timer expires, • when timer expires,
retransmit all unacked retransmit only that
packets unacked packet
Transport Layer 3-46
Go-Back-N: sender
• k-bit seq # in pkt header
• “window” of up to N, consecutive unack’ed pkts allowed

 ACK(n): ACKs all pkts up to, including seq # n - “cumulative

ACK”
 may receive duplicate ACKs (see receiver)
 timer for oldest in-flight pkt
 timeout(n): retransmit packet n and all higher seq # pkts in
window
Transport Layer 3-47
GBN: sender extended FSM
rdt_send(data)
if (nextseqnum < base+N) {
sndpkt[nextseqnum] = make_pkt(nextseqnum,data,chksum)
udt_send(sndpkt[nextseqnum])
if (base == nextseqnum)
start_timer
nextseqnum++
}
L else
refuse_data(data)
base=1
nextseqnum=1
timeout
start_timer
Wait
udt_send(sndpkt[base])
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) udt_send(sndpkt[base+1])
&& corrupt(rcvpkt) …
udt_send(sndpkt[nextseqnum-
1])
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
base = getacknum(rcvpkt)+1
If (base == nextseqnum)
stop_timer
else
start_timer
Transport Layer 3-48
GBN: receiver extended FSM
default
udt_send(sndpkt) rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
&& notcurrupt(rcvpkt)
L && hasseqnum(rcvpkt,expectedseqnum)
expectedseqnum=1 Wait extract(rcvpkt,data)
sndpkt = deliver_data(data)
make_pkt(expectedseqnum,ACK,chksum) sndpkt = make_pkt(expectedseqnum,ACK,chksum)
udt_send(sndpkt)
expectedseqnum++

ACK-only: always send ACK for correctly-received pkt

with highest in-order seq #
• may generate duplicate ACKs
• need only remember expectedseqnum
• out-of-order pkt:
• discard (don’t buffer): no receiver buffering!
• re-ACK pkt with highest in-order seq # 3-49
Transport Layer
 GBN in action
sender window (N=4) sender receiver
012345678 send pkt0
012345678 send pkt1
send pkt2 receive pkt0, send ack0
012345678
send pkt3 Xloss receive pkt1, send ack1
012345678
(wait)
receive pkt3, discard,
012345678 rcv ack0, send pkt4 (re)send ack1
012345678 rcv ack1, send pkt5 receive pkt4, discard,
(re)send ack1
ignore duplicate ACK receive pkt5, discard,
(re)send ack1
pkt 2 timeout
012345678 send pkt2
012345678 send pkt3
012345678 send pkt4 rcv pkt2, deliver, send ack2
012345678 send pkt5 rcv pkt3, deliver, send ack3
rcv pkt4, deliver, send ack4
rcv pkt5, deliver, send ack5

Transport Layer 3-50

Selective repeat
• receiver individually acknowledges all correctly
received pkts
• buffers pkts, as needed, for eventual in-order delivery
to upper layer
• sender only resends pkts for which ACK not
received
• sender timer for each unACKed pkt
• sender window
• N consecutive seq #’s
• limits seq #s of sent, unACKed pkts

Transport Layer 3-51

Selective repeat: sender, receiver windows

Transport Layer 3-52

 Selective repeat
sender receiver
pkt n in [rcvbase, rcvbase+N-1]
data from above:  send ACK(n)
if next available seq # in window, send pkt  out-of-order: buffer
timeout(n):  in-order: deliver (also
deliver buffered, in-order
resend pkt n, restart timer pkts), advance window to
ACK(n) in [sendbase,sendbase+N]: next not-yet-received pkt
mark pkt n as received
pkt n in [rcvbase-N,rcvbase-1]
 ACK(n)
if n smallest unACKed pkt, advance window base to next unACKed seq #
otherwise:
 ignore

Transport Layer 3-53

 Selective repeat in action
sender window (N=4) sender receiver
012345678 send pkt0
012345678 send pkt1
send pkt2 receive pkt0, send ack0
012345678
send pkt3 Xloss receive pkt1, send ack1
012345678
(wait)
receive pkt3, buffer,
012345678 rcv ack0, send pkt4 send ack3
012345678 rcv ack1, send pkt5 receive pkt4, buffer,
send ack4
record ack3 arrived receive pkt5, buffer,
send ack5
pkt 2 timeout
012345678 send pkt2
012345678 record ack4 arrived
012345678 rcv pkt2; deliver pkt2,
record ack5 arrived
012345678 pkt3, pkt4, pkt5; send ack2

Q: what happens when ack2 arrives?

Transport Layer 3-54

 sender window receiver window
Selective repeat: (after receipt) (after receipt)

dilemma 0123012 pkt0

pkt1 0123012
0123012
0123012 pkt2 0123012
example: 0123012
0123012 pkt3
• seq #’s: 0, 1, 2, 3 0123012
X
pkt0 will accept packet
• window size=3 with seq number 0
 receiver sees no (a) no problem

difference in two receiver can’t see sender side.

scenarios! receiver behavior identical in both cases!
something’s (very) wrong!
 duplicate data
accepted as new in (b) 0123012 pkt0
0123012 pkt1 0123012
pkt2
Q: what relationship 0123012
X
0123012
0123012
between seq # size X
and window size to timeout
retransmit pkt0 X
avoid problem in (b)? 0123012 pkt0
will accept packet
with seq number 0
(b) oops!
Transport Layer 3-55
Week based roadmap
3.5 connection-oriented
3.1 transport-layer services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and demultiplexing  segment structure
3.3 connectionless transport: UDP  reliable data transfer
 flow control
3.4 principles of reliable data transfer
 connection management
3.6 principles of congestion
control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-56

TCP: Overview RFCs: 793,1122,1323, 2018, 2581

• point-to-point: full duplex data:

• one sender, one receiver  bi-directional data flow in
same connection
• reliable, in-order byte  MSS: maximum segment
steam: size
• no “message connection-oriented:
boundaries”
 handshaking (exchange of
• pipelined: control msgs) inits sender,
• TCP congestion and flow receiver state before data
control set window size exchange
flow controlled:
 sender will not
overwhelm receiver
Transport Layer 3-57
 TCP segment structure
32 bits
URG: urgent data counting
(generally not used) source port # dest port #
by bytes
sequence number of data
ACK: ACK #
valid acknowledgement number (not segments!)
head not
PSH: push data now len used
UAP R S F receive window
(generally not used) # bytes
checksum Urg data pointer
rcvr willing
RST, SYN, FIN: to accept
options (variable length)
connection estab
(setup, teardown
commands)
application
Internet data
checksum (variable length)
(as in UDP)

Transport Layer 3-58

TCP seq. numbers, ACKs
outgoing segment from sender
sequence numbers: source port # dest port #
sequence number
• byte stream “number” of acknowledgement number

first byte in segment’s checksum

rwnd
urg pointer
data window size
N
acknowledgements:
• seq # of next byte
expected from other side sender sequence number space

• cumulative ACK sent sent, not- usable not

ACKed yet ACKed but not usable
Q: how receiver handles out- (“in-flight”) yet sent
of-order segments incoming segment to sender
• A: TCP spec doesn’t say, - source port # dest port #

up to implementor sequence number

acknowledgement number
A rwnd
checksum urg pointer

Transport Layer 3-59

TCP seq. numbers, ACKs
Host A Host B

User
types
‘C’
Seq=42, ACK=79, data = ‘C’
host ACKs
receipt of
‘C’, echoes
Seq=79, ACK=43, data = ‘C’ back ‘C’
host ACKs
receipt
of echoed
‘C’ Seq=43, ACK=80

simple telnet scenario

Transport Layer 3-60

TCP round trip time, timeout
Q: how to set TCP Q: how to estimate RTT?
timeout value? • SampleRTT: measured
longer than RTT time from segment
transmission until ACK
 but RTT varies receipt
too short: premature • ignore retransmissions
timeout, unnecessary • SampleRTT will vary, want
retransmissions estimated RTT “smoother”
too long: slow • average several recent
measurements, not just
reaction to segment current SampleRTT
loss

Transport Layer 3-61

TCP round trip time, timeout
EstimatedRTT = (1- )*EstimatedRTT + *SampleRTT
 exponential weighted moving average
 influence of past sample decreases exponentially fast
 typical value:  = 0.125 RTT: gaia.cs.umass.edu to fantasia.eurecom.fr

350
RTT (milliseconds) RTT: gaia.cs.umass.edu to fantasia.eurecom.fr

300

250
RTT (milliseconds)

200

sampleRTT
150

EstimatedRTT

100
1 8 15 22 29 36 43 50 57 64 71 78 85 92 99 106
time (seconnds)
time (seconds)
Transport Layer 3-62
SampleRTT Estimated RTT
TCP round trip time, timeout
• timeout interval: EstimatedRTT plus “safety margin”
• large variation in EstimatedRTT -> larger safety margin
• estimate SampleRTT deviation from EstimatedRTT:
DevRTT = (1-)*DevRTT +
*|SampleRTT-EstimatedRTT|
(typically,  = 0.25)

TimeoutInterval = EstimatedRTT + 4*DevRTT

estimated RTT “safety margin”

Transport Layer 3-63

Week based roadmap
3.5 connection-oriented
3.1 transport-layer services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and demultiplexing  segment structure
3.3 connectionless transport: UDP  reliable data transfer
 flow control
3.4 principles of reliable data transfer
 connection management
3.6 principles of congestion
control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-64

TCP reliable data transfer
• TCP creates rdt service
on top of IP’s unreliable
service
• pipelined segments
• cumulative acks let’s initially consider
• single retransmission simplified TCP sender:
timer • ignore duplicate acks
• ignore flow control,
• retransmissions congestion control
triggered by:
• timeout events
• duplicate acks

Transport Layer 3-65

TCP sender events:
data rcvd from app: timeout:
create segment with seq retransmit segment that
# caused timeout
seq # is byte-stream restart timer
number of first data byte ack rcvd:
in segment
if ack acknowledges
start timer if not already previously unacked
running segments
 think of timer as for  update what is known to
oldest unacked segment be ACKed
 expiration interval:  start timer if there are
TimeOutInterval still unacked segments

Transport Layer 3-66

TCP sender (simplified)
data received from application above
create segment, seq. #: NextSeqNum
pass segment to IP (i.e., “send”)
NextSeqNum = NextSeqNum + length(data)
if (timer currently not running)
L start timer
NextSeqNum = InitialSeqNum wait
SendBase = InitialSeqNum for
event timeout
retransmit not-yet-acked segment
with smallest seq. #
start timer
ACK received, with ACK field value y
if (y > SendBase) {
SendBase = y
/* SendBase–1: last cumulatively ACKed byte */
if (there are currently not-yet-acked segments)
start timer
else stop timer
} Transport Layer 3-67
TCP: retransmission scenarios
Host A Host B Host A Host B

SendBase=92
Seq=92, 8 bytes of data Seq=92, 8 bytes of data
timeout

timeout
Seq=100, 20 bytes of data
ACK=100
X
ACK=100
ACK=120

Seq=92, 8 bytes of data Seq=92, 8

SendBase=100 bytes of data
SendBase=120
ACK=100
ACK=120

SendBase=120

lost ACK scenario premature timeout

Transport Layer 3-68
TCP: retransmission scenarios
Host A Host B

Seq=92, 8 bytes of data

Seq=100, 20 bytes of data

timeout

ACK=100
X
ACK=120

Seq=120, 15 bytes of data

cumulative ACK
Transport Layer 3-69
TCP ACK generation [RFC 1122, RFC 2581]

event at receiver TCP receiver action

arrival of in-order segment with delayed ACK. Wait up to 500ms
expected seq #. All data up to for next segment. If no next segment,
expected seq # already ACKed send ACK

arrival of in-order segment with immediately send single cumulative

expected seq #. One other ACK, ACKing both in-order segments
segment has ACK pending

arrival of out-of-order segment immediately send duplicate ACK,

higher-than-expect seq. # . indicating seq. # of next expected byte
Gap detected

arrival of segment that immediate send ACK, provided that

partially or completely fills gap segment starts at lower end of gap

Transport Layer 3-70

TCP fast retransmit
time-out period often
relatively long: TCP fast retransmit
 long delay before if sender receives 3
resending lost packet ACKs for same data
detect lost segments (“triple
(“triple duplicate
duplicate ACKs”),
ACKs”),
via duplicate ACKs. resend unacked
 sender often sends segment with smallest
many segments back- seq #
to-back  likely that unacked
 if segment is lost, there segment lost, so don’t
wait for timeout
will likely be many
duplicate ACKs.

Transport Layer 3-71

TCP fast retransmit
Host A Host B

Seq=92, 8 bytes of data

Seq=100, 20 bytes of data
X

ACK=100

timeout
ACK=100
ACK=100
ACK=100
Seq=100, 20 bytes of data

fast retransmit after sender

receipt of triple duplicate
Transport Layer ACK 3-72
Week based roadmap
3.5 connection-oriented
3.1 transport-layer services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and demultiplexing  segment structure
3.3 connectionless transport: UDP  reliable data transfer
 flow control
3.4 principles of reliable data transfer
 connection management
3.6 principles of congestion
control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-73

TCP flow control
application
application may process
remove data from application
TCP socket buffers ….
TCP socket OS
receiver buffers
… slower than TCP
receiver is delivering
(sender is sending) TCP
code

IP
flow control code
receiver controls sender, so
sender won’t overflow receiver’s
buffer by transmitting too much, from sender
too fast
receiver protocol stack

Transport Layer 3-74

TCP flow control
• receiver “advertises” free
buffer space by including to application process
rwnd value in TCP header of
receiver-to-sender segments RcvBuffer buffered data
• RcvBuffer size set via
socket options (typical default
is 4096 bytes) rwnd free buffer space
• many operating systems
autoadjust RcvBuffer
TCP segment payloads
• sender limits amount of
unacked (“in-flight”) data to
receiver-side buffering
receiver’s rwnd value
• guarantees receive buffer
will not overflow
Transport Layer 3-75
Week based roadmap
3.5 connection-oriented
3.1 transport-layer services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and demultiplexing  segment structure
3.3 connectionless transport: UDP  reliable data transfer
 flow control
3.4 principles of reliable data transfer
 connection management
3.6 principles of congestion
control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-76

Connection Management
before exchanging data, sender/receiver “handshake”:
• agree to establish connection (each knowing the other willing
to establish connection)
• agree on connection parameters

application application

connection state: ESTAB connection state: ESTAB

connection variables: connection Variables:
seq # client-to-server seq # client-to-server
server-to-client server-to-client
rcvBuffer size rcvBuffer size
at server,client at server,client

network network

Socket clientSocket = Socket connectionSocket =

newSocket("hostname","port welcomeSocket.accept();
number");
Transport
Lecture #Layer
01 3-77
Agreeing to establish a connection

2-way handshake:
Q: will 2-way handshake always
work in network?
• variable delays
Let’s talk
ESTAB • retransmitted messages (e.g.
OK req_conn(x)) due to message loss
ESTAB
• message reordering
• can’t “see” other side

choose x
req_conn(x)
ESTAB
acc_conn(x)
ESTAB

Transport Layer 3-78

Agreeing to establish a connection
2-way handshake failure scenarios:

choose x choose x
req_conn(x) req_conn(x)
ESTAB ESTAB
retransmit acc_conn(x) retransmit acc_conn(x)
req_conn(x) req_conn(x)

ESTAB ESTAB
data(x+1) accept
req_conn(x)
retransmit data(x+1)
data(x+1)
connection connection
client x completes server x completes server
client
terminates forgets x terminates forgets x
req_conn(x)

ESTAB ESTAB
data(x+1) accept
half open connection! data(x+1)
(no client!)
Transport Layer 3-79
 TCP 3-way handshake

client state server state

LISTEN LISTEN
choose init seq num, x
send TCP SYN msg
SYNSENT SYNbit=1, Seq=x
choose init seq num, y
send TCP SYNACK
msg, acking SYN SYN RCVD
SYNbit=1, Seq=y
ACKbit=1; ACKnum=x+1
received SYNACK(x)
ESTAB indicates server is live;
send ACK for SYNACK;
this segment may contain ACKbit=1, ACKnum=y+1
client-to-server data
received ACK(y)
indicates client is live
ESTAB

Transport Layer 3-80

TCP 3-way handshake:
FSM
closed

Socket connectionSocket =
welcomeSocket.accept();

L Socket clientSocket =
SYN(x) newSocket("hostname","port
number");
SYNACK(seq=y,ACKnum=x+1)
create new socket for listen SYN(seq=x)
communication back to client

SYN SYN
rcvd sent

SYNACK(seq=y,ACKnum=x+1)
ESTAB ACK(ACKnum=y+1)
ACK(ACKnum=y+1)
L

Transport Layer 3-81

TCP: closing a connection
client, server each close their side of connection
 send TCP segment with FIN bit = 1
respond to received FIN with ACK
 on receiving FIN, ACK can be combined with own FIN
simultaneous FIN exchanges can be handled

Transport Layer 3-82

TCP: closing a connection
client state server state
ESTAB ESTAB
clientSocket.close()
FIN_WAIT_1 can no longer FINbit=1, seq=x
send but can
receive data CLOSE_WAIT
ACKbit=1; ACKnum=x+1
can still
FIN_WAIT_2 wait for server send data
close

LAST_ACK
FINbit=1, seq=y
TIMED_WAIT can no longer
send data
ACKbit=1; ACKnum=y+1
timed wait
for 2*max CLOSED
segment lifetime

CLOSED

Transport Layer 3-83

Week based roadmap
3.5 connection-oriented
3.1 transport-layer services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and demultiplexing  segment structure
3.3 connectionless transport: UDP  reliable data transfer
 flow control
3.4 principles of reliable data transfer
 connection management
3.6 principles of congestion
control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-84

Principles of congestion control
congestion:
• informally: “too many sources sending too much
data too fast for network to handle”
• different from flow control!
• manifestations:
• lost packets (buffer overflow at routers)
• long delays (queueing in router buffers)
• a top-10 problem!

Transport Layer 3-85

Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 1
original data: lin throughput: lout
two senders, two
receivers Host A

one router, infinite buffers unlimited shared

output link buffers
output link capacity: R
no retransmission
Host B

R/2

delay
lout

lin R/2 lin R/2

maximum per-connection  large delays as arrival rate,
throughput: R/2 lin, approaches capacity
Transport Layer 3-86
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
one router, finite buffers
sender retransmission of timed-out packet
 application-layer input = application-layer output: lin = lout
 transport-layer input includes retransmissions : lin lin
‘

lin : original data

l'in: original data, plus lout
retransmitted data

Host A

finite shared output

Host B
link buffers
Transport Layer 3-87
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
R/2
idealization: perfect
knowledge

lout
sender sends only when
router buffers available lin R/2

lin : original data

copy l'in: original data, plus lout
retransmitted data

A free buffer space!

finite shared output

Host B
link buffers
Transport Layer 3-88
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
Idealization: known loss
packets can be lost, dropped
at router due to full buffers
sender only resends if
packet known to be lost

lin : original data

copy lout
l'in: original data, plus
retransmitted data

A no buffer space!

Host B
Transport Layer 3-89
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
Idealization: known loss R/2
packets can be lost, dropped
at router due to full buffers when sending at R/2,
some packets are

lout
sender only resends if retransmissions but
packet known to be lost asymptotic goodput
is still R/2 (why?)

lin R/2

lin : original data

lout
l'in: original data, plus
retransmitted data

A free buffer space!

Host B
Transport Layer 3-90
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
Realistic: duplicates R/2
 packets can be lost, dropped at
router due to full buffers when sending at R/2,
some packets are

lout
 sender times out prematurely, retransmissions
including duplicated
sending two copies, both of that are delivered!
which are delivered R/2
lin

lin
timeout
copy lout
l'in

A free buffer space!

Host B
Transport Layer 3-91
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
Realistic: duplicates R/2
 packets can be lost, dropped at
router due to full buffers when sending at R/2,
some packets are

lout
 sender times out prematurely, retransmissions
including duplicated
sending two copies, both of that are delivered!
which are delivered R/2
lin

“costs” of congestion:
 more work (retrans) for given “goodput”
 unneeded retransmissions: link carries multiple copies of pkt
 decreasing goodput

Transport Layer 3-92

Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 3
four senders Q: what happens as lin and lin’
increase ?
multihop paths A: as red lin’ increases, all arriving
timeout/retransmit blue pkts at upper queue are
dropped, blue throughput g 0
Host A
lin : original data lout
Host B
l'in: original data, plus
retransmitted data
finite shared output
link buffers

Host D
Host C

Transport Layer 3-93

Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 3

C/2

lout

lin’ C/2

another “cost” of congestion:

 when packet dropped, any “upstream transmission
capacity used for that packet was wasted!

Transport Layer 3-94

Approaches towards congestion control

two broad approaches towards congestion control:

end-end congestion network-assisted

control: congestion control:
no explicit feedback  routers provide
from network feedback to end systems
congestion inferred  single bit indicating
from end-system congestion (SNA,
observed loss, delay DECbit, TCP/IP ECN,
ATM)
approach taken by TCP
 explicit rate for sender
to send at
Transport Layer 3-95
Case study: ATM ABR congestion control

ABR: available bit rate: RM (resource management)

• “elastic service” cells:
• sent by sender, interspersed with
• if sender’s path data cells
“underloaded”:
• bits in RM cell set by switches
• sender should use (“network-assisted”)
available bandwidth • NI bit: no increase in rate
• if sender’s path (mild congestion)
congested: • CI bit: congestion indication
• sender throttled to • RM cells returned to sender by
minimum guaranteed receiver, with bits intact
rate

Transport Layer 3-96

Case study: ATM ABR congestion control

RM cell data cell

• two-byte ER (explicit rate) field in RM cell

• congested switch may lower ER value in cell
• senders’ send rate thus max supportable rate on path
• EFCI bit in data cells: set to 1 in congested switch
• if data cell preceding RM cell has EFCI set, receiver sets CI
bit in returned RM cell
Transport Layer 3-97
Week based roadmap
3.5 connection-oriented
3.1 transport-layer services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and demultiplexing  segment structure
3.3 connectionless transport: UDP  reliable data transfer
 flow control
3.4 principles of reliable data transfer
 connection management
3.6 principles of congestion
control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-98

 TCP congestion control: additive
increase multiplicative decrease
 approach: sender increases transmission rate (window
size), probing for usable bandwidth, until loss occurs
 additive increase: increase cwnd by 1 MSS every
RTT until loss detected
 multiplicative decrease: cut cwnd in half after loss
additively increase window size …
…. until loss occurs (then cut window in half)

congestion window size

cwnd: TCP sender
AIMD saw tooth
behavior: probing
for bandwidth

time
Transport
Lecture #Layer
01 3-99
TCP Congestion Control: details
sender sequence number space
cwnd TCP sending rate:
roughly: send cwnd
bytes, wait RTT for
last byte
ACKed sent, not-
last byte
sent
ACKS, then send more
yet ACKed
(“in-flight”)
bytes
cwnd
sender limits transmission: ~
rate~ bytes/sec
RTT
LastByteSent- < cwnd
LastByteAcked
cwnd is dynamic, function of perceived
network congestion

Transport Layer 3-100

TCP Slow Start
Host A Host B
when connection begins,
increase rate
exponentially until first one s e gm
ent

RTT
loss event:
 initially cwnd = 1 MSS two segm
en ts
 double cwnd every RTT
 done by incrementing
four segm
cwnd for every ACK ents

received
summary: initial rate is
slow but ramps up time
exponentially fast
Transport Layer 3-101
 TCP: detecting, reacting to loss
loss indicated by timeout:
 cwnd set to 1 MSS;
 window then grows exponentially (as in slow start) to threshold, then grows
linearly
loss indicated by 3 duplicate ACKs: TCP RENO
 dup ACKs indicate network capable of delivering some segments
 cwnd is cut in half window then grows linearly
TCP Tahoe always sets cwnd to 1 (timeout or 3 duplicate acks)

Transport Layer 3-102

TCP: switching from slow start to CA
Q: when should the
exponential increase
switch to linear?
A: when cwnd gets to 1/2
of its value before
timeout.

Implementation:
variable ssthresh
on loss event, ssthresh is
set to 1/2 of cwnd just
before loss event

Transport Layer 3-103

Summary: TCP Congestion
Control
New
New ACK!
ACK!
duplicate ACK
dupACKcount++ new ACK
new ACK
.
cwnd = cwnd + MSS (MSS/cwnd)
dupACKcount = 0
cwnd = cwnd+MSS transmit new segment(s), as allowed
dupACKcount = 0
L transmit new segment(s), as allowed
cwnd = 1 MSS
ssthresh = 64 KB cwnd > ssthresh
dupACKcount = 0
slow L congestion
start timeout avoidance
ssthresh = cwnd/2
cwnd = 1 MSS duplicate ACK
timeout dupACKcount = 0 dupACKcount++
ssthresh = cwnd/2 retransmit missing segment
cwnd = 1 MSS
dupACKcount = 0
retransmit missing segment
timeout
New
ACK!
ssthresh = cwnd/2
cwnd = 1 New ACK
dupACKcount = 0
retransmit missing segment cwnd = ssthresh dupACKcount == 3
dupACKcount == 3 dupACKcount = 0
ssthresh= cwnd/2 ssthresh= cwnd/2
cwnd = ssthresh + 3 cwnd = ssthresh + 3
retransmit missing segment retransmit missing segment
fast
recovery
duplicate ACK
cwnd = cwnd + MSS
transmit new segment(s), as allowed

Transport
Lecture #Layer
01 3-104
TCP throughput
• avg. TCP thruput as function of window size, RTT?
• ignore slow start, assume always data to send
• W: window size (measured in bytes) where loss occurs
• avg. window size (# in-flight bytes) is ¾ W
• avg. thruput is 3/4W per RTT
3 W
avg TCP thruput = bytes/sec
4 RTT

W/2

Transport
Lecture #Layer
01 3-105
 TCP Futures: TCP over “long, fat pipes”

• example: 1500 byte segments, 100ms RTT, want 10

Gbps throughput
• requires W = 83,333 in-flight segments
• throughput in terms of segment loss probability, L
[Mathis 1997]:
1.22 . MSS
TCP throughput =
RTT L

➜ to achieve 10 Gbps throughput, need a loss rate of L =

2·10-10 – a very small loss rate!
• new versions of TCP for high-speed
Transport
Lecture #Layer
01 3-106
TCP Fairness
fairness goal: if K TCP sessions share same
bottleneck link of bandwidth R, each should have
average rate of R/K

TCP connection 1

bottleneck
router
capacity R
TCP connection 2

Transport Layer 3-107

Why is TCP fair?
two competing sessions:
additive increase gives slope of 1, as throughout increases
multiplicative decrease decreases throughput proportionally
R equal bandwidth share

Connection 2 throughput
loss: decrease window by factor of 2
congestion avoidance: additive increase
loss: decrease window by factor of 2
congestion avoidance: additive increase

Connection 1 throughput R
Transport Layer 3-108
Fairness (more)
Fairness and UDP Fairness, parallel TCP
multimedia apps often connections
do not use TCP application can open
 do not want rate multiple parallel connections
throttled by congestion between two hosts
control
web browsers do this
instead use UDP:
e.g., link of rate R with 9
 send audio/video at
constant rate, tolerate existing connections:
packet loss  new app asks for 1 TCP, gets rate
R/10
 new app asks for 11 TCPs, gets R/2

Transport Layer 3-109

summary
principles behind transport
layer services:
 multiplexing, demultiplexing
 reliable data transfer next:
 flow control • leaving the network
 congestion control “edge” (application,
instantiation, implementation transport layers)
in the Internet • into the network
 UDP
 TCP
“core”

Transport Layer 3-110