Computer Hardware

Rahul Gopi
CIPET :IPT KOCHI
The birth of Personal Computer
Personal
computer PC
Microcomputer By IBM
with OS CP/M
and upto 64
dump Terminals
Why not a system for
single user like microcomputer
at the cost of Home computer ???

Home computer HC
TV as monitor & Tape
recorder as storage
device
For this PC the IBM needs

• A 8 bit processor
which can support above 256KB Memory

• Single user OS
which can work with Floppy Disk
 Intel
The Microprocessor Company released 8086
a 16 bit Processor with 1MB memory support.
….failure in the market

8086 was modified into 8 bit processor as 8088

used by IBM for PC
Microsoft
A small company of those days developed a OS as
Disk Operating System DOS for IBM

…later renamed as MSDOS

The First IBM PC configuration

Processor 8088 - 4.77Mhz

256 KB RAM (640kb)
2x360 KB Floppy disk drive
2 Parallel port
2 Serial port
Mono Graphics display card
Mono chromatic monitor
84 keys keyboard

Operating system DOS (8 bit)

Microprocessor and PC Development

Intel SIMM 30pins

16 MB RAM
VGA, ISA Slot 16 MB RAM With
8080- 8 bit IDE & ATA HDD (4GB) Co-
Multi Media Dual Speed processor
CPU& RAM Cache mem
8085- 8 bit I/O 33Mhz 72 pin
8087 SIMM
8086 -16bit PCI Slot
80287 Tri speed
8088 16/8 80387 CPU,Mem
80286-16bit & I/O

PC 80386-32bit
& PC286AT
PC 12-20Mhz 80486-32bit
XT Windows 3.1 PC386AT
Novel 33&40Mhz 80586
NetWare Windows 95
 Cache Memory

Address Bus
CPU Data Bus
Main Memory RAM
Control lines
Microprocessor and PC Development
AMD,
Intel SIMM 30pins Cyrix,Ti …
16 MB RAM
VGA, ISA Slot 16 MB RAM
8080- 8 bit IDE & ATA HDD (4GB) With
Multi Media Dual Speed Co-
CPU& RAM processor
8085- 8 bit I/O 33Mhz Cache mem
8087 72 pin
8086 -16bit SIMM
80287
PCI Slot
8088 16/8 80387 Tri speed
80286-16bit CPU,Mem
& I/O
PC 80386-32bit
& PC286AT
PC 12-20Mhz 80486-32bit
XT Windows 3.1 PC386AT
Novel 33&40Mhz 80586
NetWare Windows 95
 100-166Mhz, Internal Cache
Integrated motherboard
80586 Pentium EDO RAM

233-533Mhz
80686 512KB Cache
Pentium-II
FSB 66-133Mhz
SD RAM 168pin
Celeron

550Mhz-1.13GHz
Pentium-III 512KB –2MBCache
233-533Mhz FSB 133-333Mhz
64-256KB Cache SD RAM 168pin

FSB 66-133Mhz
Pentium-4
SD RAM 168pin
Personal Computer Architechture

P Processor M
O E
R M
T O FDC
S R HDC
BUS controller
Y

I/O
Controller BIOS
I/O Slots
RTC

Motherboard
Motherboard
Normally a motherboard consists of
CPU Socket & CPU
Core voltage converter~1.7V
Core Frequency generator e.g. 2.8Ghz
Chip set
Memory bus controller (FSB)
I/O controllers
RAM Slot & RAM
Keyboard interface
I/O Slots
Integrated or All In One Motherboard
Floppy Disk Controller
Hard Disk Controller
parallel ATA (PATA)
Serial ATA (SATA)
Parallel port, Serial port, USB ports
Ethernet
AGP display controller
Sound Controller
Pentium-4
Some Important points in selecting
the Processor

Speed: 1 Ghz – 3.4 Ghz ….

FSB : 333Mhz – 833Mhz

Three
Level Cache: 256Kb-4Gb

Models: Single core

HT
Dual Core
Advance Micro Devices
AMD
K5 = 80586 Pentium

K6 = 80686 Pentium - II

Athlon = Pentium - III

Pentium - 4

Sempron = Celeron
 Today’s Computer Configuration

Pentium-4 3.0Ghz Dual 2Mb Cache 833 FSB AMD Athlon 4800+
Intel Motherboard 102 FSB 533Mhz Chipset Motherboard
512 MB DDR2
160GB HDD SATA As same as other side
DVD drive
Serial & Parallel ports
USB port
Monitor CRT or TFT
Keyboard & mouse
 Motherboard

Intel CPU AMD CPU

Intel Motherboard Intel Chipset Third party Motherboard

Motherboard

Chipset and Board

both Intel itself Chipset by Other chipset
Chipset by Intel
manufacturers
Board Other companies
Like VIA, SIS …
Like Mercury, Asus…
Board by Other Companies
Like Mercury, Asus
Motherboard With higher FSB, AGP Slot, SATA interface
and at least three PCI I/O Slots
 Chipset

There are two major sections in motherboard

namely
• Memory Section
• I/O Section
Memory Section I/O Section
Memory decoders I/O Decoder
Bus controller DMA & PIC
FSB manager PCI I/O slot manager
Etc Power manager
For these things AGP onboard & AGP Slot
Chipset Etc
One SMD
One SMD
 Memory RAM
SIMM 30 pin 286 & 386 AT

SIMM 72 pin 486 & Pentium K5 from AMD

EDO RAM 486 & Pentium K5 from AMD

(Enhance Data Out)
SD RAM Pentium, Pentium-II & III Athalon
(Synchronous Data)
RD RAM Pentium – 4
(Ram Data bus)
DDR Pentium – 4 Single core & HT FSB: 400Mhz
(Double Data Rate)
DDR2 Pentium – 4 Dual core FSB: 533Mhz
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

SCSI Small Computer System Interface

Normally used in Servers.

IDE Integrated Drive Electronics

(ATA)Advance Technology Attachment

PATA Parallel ATA

SATA Serial ATA (7200 RPM &

Ultra DMA 133Mhz)
Voice Coil Actuator

A Voice Coil Actuator is a very simple positioning device that utilizes a

coil of wire in a permanent magnetic field. In speakers, the magnet is
cylindrical North-South Pole in-out (or top-bottom of the cylinder) and
the coil goes North-to-South Pole (or top-bottom of an inner cylinder).
Changing the amplitude and polarity of the current in the coil causes an
in-out force that 'plays' the diaphragm on the speaker. The spring tension
on the diaphragm keeps the voice coil actuator centered when no current
is applied. You know the voice coil and speaker ... here's Alexander
Graham Bell's original invention drawing from 1876 (courtesy U.S.
Library of Congress):
The hard disk voice coil actuator
The hard disk voice coil actuator is used to position disk
heads across the platter of the disk. It is a 'voice coil
actuator' in that it only uses a coil and a permanent
magnet in a simple push-pull fashion, but doesn't work
like a speaker voice coil actuator. The geometries are
completely different.
The voice coil actuator looks like this:
Hard Disk Basics
Hard disks are organized as a concentric stack of platters. The data is
stored on concentric circles on the surfaces known as tracks. Sections
within each track are called sectors. A sector is the smallest physical
storage unit on a disk and typically it will hold 512 bytes of data.
Zoned Bit Recording (ZBR)
Now that you know what’s inside your hard disk and how the data is stored, it’s
time to add some complexity.
If you imagine the surface of a disk platter, considering a constant number of
sectors per track and knowing that track lengths increase the farther a track resides
from the center of the disk (they are concentric circles), it’s not hard to conclude
that the outer data sectors are longer than the inner data sectors.
This means that the outer tracks are greatly underutilized, because in theory they
can hold many more sectors given the same linear bit density. In order to increase
capacity and eliminate this wasted space, a technique called zone bit recording
(ZBR) is employed on modern hard disks. With this technique, tracks are grouped
into zones based on their distance from the center of the disk, and each zone is
assigned a number of sectors per track. As you move from the innermost part of
the disk to the outer edge, you move through different zones, each containing more
sectors per track than the one before. This allows for more efficient use of the
larger tracks on the outside of the disk.
 Input output Ports in Computer

To communicate with other devices and for interfacing

there some ports in computer

Parallel port for printer and 8 bit interfacing

Serial port for mouse, modem and serial interfacing

USB ports Universal Serial Bus port

for serial communication with devices
at closer distances
Speed 12Mbps & 127 devices
Ether net for LAN
VGA Monitor
 Power Supply
20/9V DC 12/5V DC
8/20A
220v Ac 20/9V AC 8/20A
Output

Transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator

180W 100W
1 computer 1h r = 100W
1 computer 10hrs = 1000W
80W ?~100w
100 computer 10hrs = 10000W
10 colleges like this = 100000W
100 Cites/towns = 10000000W=10MW
20 States = 200MW
Taking TV into account
= 2000MW
 Switching Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

Rectifier Filter Inverter Rectifier Filter

220v AC
220v DC 12/5V AC 12/5V DC
AC to DC
DC to AC

Feed back & Correction

 Keyboard & Mouse

Keyboard
Interface AT (Din connector)
PS/2 (Small Din connector)
Mouse
Interface Serial (9 Pin D type
Connector)
PS/2 (Small Din connector)
 Monitor
 Display Card PCI /AGP I/o Card or

On board (15 Pin D

type Connector)

 Monitor CRT

TFT(LCD)
Interfacing Techniques
Parallel Port Anatomy:

Following are the pin outs:

• 8 Output pins [D0 to D7]

• 5 Status pins [S4 to S7 and S3]
• 4 Control pins [C0 to C3]
• 8 ground pins [18 to 25]
The Pins having a bar over them ,means that the signal is
inverted by the parallel port's hardware.
if a 1 were to appear on the 11 pin [S7],
the PC would see a 0.

The Status pins are mainly used by the PC to know the

status of the printer ,like if there is paper in the printer,
end of paper etc.
 Data Port

In this address the CPU writes the data

to be sent to the printer. It is an
Data Bits Table
OUTPUT port.
The eight data bits (D0-D7) are latched BIT FUNCTION PIN
to appear in the output connector. D0 data 0 2
D1 data 1 3
D2 data 2 4
D3 data 3 5
D4 data 4 6
D5 data 5 7
D6 data 6 8
D7 data 7 9
 Status Port Status Bits Table
BIT FUNCTION PIN
D0 not used
D1 not used
This is an INPUT port. These D2 not used
signals are used by the CPU to
know the state of the printer. D3 ERROR/ 15
D4 SLCT/ 17
D5 PE 12
D6 ACK/ 10
D7 BUSY/ 11
 Control Port
Control Bits Table

BIT FUNCTION PIN

In this port the computer D0 STROBE 1
writes the signals that D1 AUTO FD 14
control the printer.
Therefore, it is an D2 INIT/ 16
OUTPUT port, D3 SLCT IN/ 17
D4 IRQ7
D5 not used
D6 not used
D7 not used
The computer has three LPTn ports. The addresses of the Data, Status
and Control signals for each LPTn port are listed below. Each port
works in the same way that LPT1 does.

Addresses of LPTn

PORT DATA STATUS CONTROL

LPT1 378H 379H 37AH

LPT2 278H 279H 27AH

LPT3 3BCH 2BDH 3BEH

LED flash

#include <studio.h>
#include <dos.h>
void main(void)
{
outportb(0x378,0xFF) ;
outportb(0x378,0x00)
Stepper Motor control
}
#include<studio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<dos.h>
main() {
outportb(0x378,0x01);
outportb(0x378,0x02);
outportb(0x378,0x04);
outportb(0x378,0x08)
}
 RS232 Serial Port

Electronic data communications between elements will generally

fall into two broad categories: single-ended and differential.
RS232 (single-ended) was introduced in 1962, rumors for its early
It is widely used through the industry.

Independent channels are established for two-way (full-duplex)

communications. The RS232 signals are represented by voltage
levels with respect to a system common (power / logic ground).
The "idle" state (MARK) has the signal level negative with respect
to common, and the "active" state (SPACE) has the signal level
positive with respect to common. RS232 has numerous
handshaking lines (primarily used with modems), and also
specifies a communications protocol.
The RS-232 interface presupposes a common ground between
the DTE and DCE. RS232 data is bi-polar.... +3 TO +12 volts
indicates an "ON or 0-state (SPACE) condition" while A -3 to -12
volts indicates an "OFF" 1-state (MARK) condition.... Modern
computer equipment ignores the negative level and accepts a
zero voltage level as the "OFF" state. In fact, the "ON" state may
be achieved with lesser positive potential.

This means circuits powered by 5 VDC are capable of driving

RS232 circuits directly, however, the overall range that the RS232
signal may be transmitted/received may be dramatically reduced.
Description Signal 9-pin DTE 25-pin DCE Source DTE or DCE

Carrier Detect CD 1 8 from Modem

Receive Data RD 2 3 from Modem

Transmit Data TD 3 2 from Terminal/Computer

Data Terminal Ready DTR 4 20 from Terminal/Computer

Signal Ground SG 5 7 from Modem

Data Set Ready DSR 6 6 from Modem

Request to Send RTS 7 4 from Terminal/Computer

Clear to Send CTS 8 5 from Modem

22
Ring Indicator RI 9 from Modem
 Microcontrollers and Embedded System

Embedded Systems are a combination of Hardware

(microcontrollers) and Software (developed in
assembler, c, c++…) designed to perform a specific
function
An embedded product uses microcontrollers to do one
task and one task only.
 What is a Microcontroller?

A microcontroller (often abbreviated MCU) is a single computer chip

(integrated circuit) that executes a user program, normally for the
purpose of controlling some device, hence the name
microcontroller.

The program is normally contained either in a second chip, called

an EPROM, or within the same chip as the microcontroller itself.

A microcontroller is normally found in devices such as microwave

ovens, automobiles, keyboards, CD players, cell phones, VCRs,
security systems, time & attendance clocks, etc.
 Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller

Microcontrollers are used in devices that require some amount of

computing power but donot require as much computing power as that
provided by a complex (and expensive) 486 or Pentium system which
generally requires a large amount of supporting circuitry (large
motherboards, hundreds of megabytes of RAM, hard drives, hard
drive controllers, video cards, etc).

A microwave oven just does not need that much computing power.
Microcontroller-based systems are generally smaller, more reliable,
and cheaper. They are ideal for the types of applications described
above where cost and unit size are very important considerations. In
such applications it is almost always desirable to produce circuits that
require the smallest number of integrated circuits, that require the
smallest amount of physical space, require the least amount of
energy, and cost as little as possible.
 Simple comparison: Pentium vs. 8051
FEATURE 8051 PENTIUM COMMENT
Clock Speed 12Mhz. typical 1,000 MHz. 8051 internally divides
but 60MHz. ICs (1GHz.) clock by 12 so for
available 12MHz. clock effective
clock rate is just 1MHz.
Address bus 16 bits 32 bits 8051 can address 216, or
64Kbytes of memory.
Pentium can address
232, or
4 GigaBytes of
memory.
Data bus 8 bits 64 bits Pentium’s wide bus
allows very fast data
transfers.
ALU width 8 bits 32 bits But - Pentium has
multiple 32 bit ALUs –
along with floating-
point units.
Applications Domestic Personal
appliances, Computers
Peripherals, And other high
automotive etc. performance
 Microcontroller
Ext int

interrupt
Timer0
Timer1
ROM RAM

CPU

Bus 4 I/o Serial

control ports port
OSC
 Microcontroller Manufacturing Companies

There are FOUR major companies manufacturing

8 bit controllers
1. Motorola (6811)
2. Intel (8051 MCS51)
3. Zilog (Z8)
4. PIC (16X____) Microchip
 8051 Microcontroller Overview
Functional block of the internal operation of an 8051
ADDRESS BUS (External) 16 bit

Internal Memory
Memory Address
Register
(Uses P0 and P2)
I-RAM
General Registers
STACK

DPTR
Bit-addressable

P.C.
SFRs etc.

DATA BUS (External) 8 bit

Internal data bus

Instruction Acc
Register B Accumulator

Instruction Temporary Temporary

decoder/ register register
control logic

PSW
flags
C
AC
F0
RS1
RS2 ALU
OV 8-bit
Control Lines

RD/ WR/ PSEN/

ALE/ etc.
 Port Organization of MCS51

Port 1
Port 0
P1.0 – P1.7
P0.0 – P0.7

P1 P0

Port 3
Port 2
P3.0 – P3.7
P2.0 – P2.7

P3 P2
 Port Assignments

Port 0 : Input/Output Port & AD0-AD7 for ext memory

Port 1 : Input/Output Port
Port 2 : Input/Output Port & A8-A15 for ext Memory
Port 3 : Input/Output Port
P3.0 : RxD
P3.1 : TxD
P3.2 : INTO’
P3.3 : INT1’
P3.4 : T0
P3.5 : T1
P3.6 : WR’
P3.7 : RD’
A Circuit using 89c51
40
+5V

Pin 40 +vcc

9 20 Gnd
89c51 31 9 Reset
18 OSC1
19 OSC2
31 Ext Access

18

19 GND
20
 Burglar alarm system hardware
+ 5 volts
8051 Chip

10 kOhms

P3.0 P1.0 a a
P3.1 P1.1 b
f b
P3.2 P1.2 c g

PORT 1 (P1)
PORT 3 (P3)
P3.3 P1.3 d
c
P3.4 P1.4 e e

.5 P1.5 f
d
.6 P1.6 g

.7 P1.7
+ volts

Internal Memory

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

SFRs
Zone
Zone
Zone
Zone

B0h
1
2
3
4

90h

I-RAM
Input circuit Output circuit
+ 5 volts a

f b
g

input x e c

d
normally closed
Switches are

e.g. 200 Ohm

a

If any switch is opened Internal circuit within 7-segment

Input x goes high to indicate an display device. (Common cathode
alarm condition i.e. +5v input causes LED to light)
 ALARM_1 Program flow chart
Initialise I/O
ports P1 and P3

Read port P3

YES
Are all
P3 inputs at 0

NO

Sound alarm
Bell
 ALARM_1 Program source code

ORG 0000h ; define memory start address 000

; Initialise the I/O ports
MOV P3, #0ffh ; write all ones to P3 to use as an input port
MOV P1, #00 ; all zeros to put P1 in a known output state
POLL:
MOV A, P3 ; read P3 to accumulator
CJNE A, #00h, ALARM ; if not all zeros then jump to ALARM
LJMP POLL ; else loop back to POLL
ALARM:
SETB P1.7 ; enable the BELL by setting P1.7 high
END_LOOP:
LJMP END_LOOP ; program just loops around here
END ; end of program
Hardware circuit with timing diagram for sound
+ volts
Clock
12 MHz.
Loudspeaker

P1.0

Port 1
8051 SETB P1.0 SETB P1.0 SETB P1.0

P1.7 CLR P1.0 CLR P1.0 CLR P1.0

delay delay delay delay delay

1 ms. 1 ms. 1 ms. 1 ms. 1 ms.

RESET T = 2 msecs.

f = 1/T = 1 / 0.002
= 500 Hz.
 Source code for example program to sound 500Hz

ORG 0000h ; start address is 0000h

MOV P1, #00 ; clear all bits on P1
LOOP:
SETB P1.0 ; set P1.0 high
LCALL ONE_MILLI_SUB ; delay one millisecond
CLR P1.0 ; set P1.0 low
LCALL ONE_MILLI_SUB ; delay one millisecond
LJMP LOOP ; loop around!
ONE_MILLI_SUB
PUSH 07h ; save R7 to stack
MOV R7, #250d ; 250 decimal to R7 to count 250 loops
LOOP_1_MILLI: ; loops 250 times
NOP ; inserted NOPs to cause delay
NOP
DJNZ R7, LOOP_1_MILLI ; decrement R7, if not zero loop back
POP 07h ; restore R7 to original value
RET ; return from subroutine
END ; end of program
 Serial Communication

RS-232 Serial Comms.

PC Connection Device
e.g. Modem
or Printer

'A' 'B' 'C'

'A' 'B' 'C'

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
 Block diagram of UART transmitter

Put parity bit here

(ninth bit!) TB8 Stop bit
9th. bit

Send SBUF 11 bit

8-bit 8 data parallel
data to serial
8 conversion

Start bit
Transmitter
Buffer is Serial data transmit
TI
empty
p 8 data bits
stop star
bit bit
parity bit
 Block diagram of UART receiver

Start bit

Receive SBUF 11 bit

8-bit serial to
data 8 data parallel
8 conversion

9th. bit
Receive Stop bit
data is RI Rx
available Serial data receive

Read parity bit here 8 data bits p

(ninth bit!) RB8 start stop
bit bit
parity bit
 System Assembling

1. Collect all The materials

2. Test the SMPS for its various voltages
+12V,-12V,+5V,-5V,3.3V
Take the motherboard check for physical damages
Insert the CPU
Mount
the
cooling
FAN
Power
connection
for FAN
Fix the RAM in its Slot
Power Connection
for motherboard
Fix the Storage
device like
Floppy Disk Drive ,
Hard Disk Drive,
CD/DVD drive
and
Connect Data cable
and
Power cable
Hard Disk Drive Connections
Connect the data cable in motherboard
Hard Disk Data cable to Motherboard
Trouble Shooting a System
Troubles in the system can be put in two main Categories

Before Boot Problem After Boot Problem

Before Display Software & OS Based

After display Virus

Hardware Problems
Trouble Shooting a System Before boot and Display

1.A System Reports Nothing on the screen

Check the power cable and switch On

No response
Check monitor Power LED
OFF Check the Power cable the monitor
ON Check the Panel controls
Blinking Check the Data Cable the monitor
Data cable OK
Problem in the system

May be the SMPS or the motherboard side

To check SMPS – Watch your keyboard LEDS during Switch ON

If Flashing once or twice on problem in SMPS
other conformation is SMPS FAN
Trouble Shooting a System Before boot and Display Contd

The problem may in the motherboard, CPU, Reset Switch

Check the Reset Switch

Check Hard Disk Data Cable

2.A System Reports Nothing on the screen But Long Beep

RAM Or RAM Slot Problem.

After Display Problems

The BIOS give proper information by its POST

After Boot Problems

The BIOS and OS give the information

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)

Definition
Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) is a new modem
technology that converts existing twisted-pair telephone lines into
access paths for high-speed communications of various sorts.
Overview
ADSL can transmit more than 6 Mbps to a subscriber—enough to
provide Internet access, video-on-demand, and LAN access. In
interactive mode it can transmit more than 640 kbps in both
directions. This increases the existing access capacity by more than
fifty-fold enabling the transformation of the existing public
network. No longer is it limited to voice, text, and low-resolution
graphics. It promises to be nothing less than an ubiquitous system
that can provide multimedia (including full-motion video) to the
entire country.
Data Rate Wire Gauge Distance Wire Size Distance
(Mbps) (AWG) (ft) (mm) (km)

1.5–2.0 24 18,000 0.5 5.5

1.5–2.0 26 15,000 0.4 4.6

6.1 24 12,000 0.5 3.7

6.1 26 9,000 0.4 2.7

Be Informative….
Be A Hard worker….
Be A successful Person