Network

fundamental
IB Computer Science
s
Topic 3.1.1
Identify different types of
networks

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Types of Networks
• LAN
• WAN
• VLAN
• SAN
• WLAN
• Internet
• Extranet
• VPN
• PAN
• P2P
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Definition: Network
• A computer network is a group of computer systems and
other computing hardware devices that are linked
together through communication channels to facilitate
communication and resource-sharing among a range of
users.
• Networks are commonly categorized based on
their characteristics.

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Definition: Network
• A Computer network is comprised of two or more
computer systems that are connected and able to
communicate and exchange data. Such computer systems
are connected by using cable or wireless media. There are
two key terms in computer networks that play an important
role:
- Server: can be a computer system or software application
that provides a service to the other computer systems
connected to the same network.
For example a server can provide the ability to the rest of the
computers on the network to store and to share files and
taking the role of a file server.
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Definition: Network
- Client: a client can be a computer system or a software
application that requests a service from a server connected
systems connected to the same network.
For example an email client software application can request
from an email server software application to fetch any new
emails that may have been received.

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Questions:-
1- Define the Hub, Switch and
Router.

2- Describe some characteristics

of the internet. 3.1
 LAN = Local Area Network
• LAN stands for local area network. It covers, as the
name suggests, a local area.
• This usually includes a local office/building and they're
also pretty common in homes now, thanks to the
spread of Wi-Fi.
• Whether wired or wireless, nearly all modern LANs are
based on Ethernet, a set of protocols for exchanging
data.
• There are two ways to implement Ethernet: twisted-pair
cables (UTP) or wireless (Wi-Fi radio waves).

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WAN = Wide Area Network
• The name is exactly what it sounds like: a network that
covers an area wider than a LAN.
• Beyond that, the definition is less clear. Distances can range
from a network connecting multiple buildings on a
corporate or college campus to satellite links connecting
offices in different countries.
• The most popular WAN is the internet.
• It's actually a collection of other networks, including other
LANs and WANs – hence, the name.
• WANs can be wired (using fibre-optic cable) or wireless
(using microwave or satellite transmission technology).

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Example of a WAN

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LAN vs WAN

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LAN vs WAN
 VLAN = Virtual Local Area Network
• A virtual local area network (VLAN) is a logical group of
workstations, servers and network devices that appear
to be on the same LAN despite their geographical
distribution.
• A VLAN allows a network of computers and users to
communicate in a simulated environment as if they
exist in a single LAN.
• VLANs are implemented to achieve scalability, security
and ease of network management and can quickly
adapt to changes in network requirements and
relocation of workstations and server nodes.
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Examples of a VLAN

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Examples of a VLAN

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VLAN vs LAN

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SAN = Storage Area Network
• A storage area network (SAN) is a secure high-speed data
transfer network that provides access to consolidated
block- level storage.
• An SAN makes a network of storage devices accessible to
multiple servers.
• SAN devices appear to servers as attached drives,
eliminating traditional network bottlenecks.
• SANs are sometimes also referred to (albeit redundantly) as
SAN storage, SAN network, network SAN, etc.

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SAN = Storage Area Network
 See 3.1.12
to 3.1.14

WLAN = Wireless Local Area Network

• A wireless local area network (WLAN) is a wireless
distribution method for two or more devices that use high-
frequency radio waves and often include an access point to
the Internet.
• A WLAN allows users to move around the coverage area,
often a home or small office, while maintaining a
network connection.
• A WLAN is sometimes called a Wi-Fi network, but can
include other transmission technologies.

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LAN vs WLAN
LAN vs WLAN

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Internet = network of networks
• The internet is a globally connected network system that uses the
TCP/IP protocols to transmit data via various types of media.
• The internet is a network of global exchanges – including private,
public, business, academic and government networks – connected
by wired, wireless and fibre-optic technologies.
• The terms internet and World Wide Web (www) are often used
interchangeably, but they are not exactly the same thing; the
internet refers to the global communication system, including
hardware and infrastructure, while the web is one of the services
communicated over the internet.

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Intranet
• An intranet is the broad term for a collection of private
computer networks within a company, school or
organization that utilities standard network protocols like
TCP/IP.
• The main purpose is to facilitate communication
between individuals or work groups and improve data
sharing.

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Extranet
• An extranet is a controlled private network allowing
customers, partners, vendors, suppliers and other
businesses to gain information, typically about a
specific company or educational institution, and do so
without granting access to the organization's entire
network.
• An extranet is often a private part of a website.
• It is restricted to select users through user IDs,
passwords
and other authentication mechanisms on a login page.

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Intranet vs Extranet

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 See 3.1.4
and 3.1.5

VPN = Virtual Private Network

• It uses the internet to allow people to log into a network
remotely and access its resources, but encrypts the connection
to thwart eavesdroppers.
• If your company sets you up with a VPN, you can access your
corporate intranet, file servers or email from home or a coffee
shop – just as if you were using it in your office.
• This makes VPN a popular way to support remote workers,
especially in fields where privacy is paramount, such as health
care.

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VPN

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PAN = Personal Area Network
• It's exactly what it sounds like: a network covering a very
small area, usually a small room.
• The best known wireless PAN network technology is
Bluetooth, and the most popular wired PAN is USB.
• You might not think of your wireless headset, your printer
or your smartphones as components in a network, but they
are definitely talking with each other.
• Many peripheral devices are actually computers in their
own right.
• Wi-Fi also serves as a PAN technology, since Wi-Fi is also
used
over a small area (especially in cars).
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PAN example

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P2P = Peer-to-Peer
• Peer-to-peer is a network model in which
computers or hardware devices exchange
files.
• Some experts describe it as an “equal client”
system where instead of accessing files from
a server, the “peer” computers just swap
them amongst each other.

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Types of Networks
• LAN
• WAN
• VLAN
• SAN
• WLAN
• Internet
• Extranet
• Can you appreciate how globalisation
VPN
• has been accelerated by the technical
PAN
• advances linked to network
P2P
development?
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 Network
fundamental
IB Computer Science
s
Topic 3.1.2
Outline the importance of standards in
the construction of networks

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Standards are important!
• Standards play an important role in networking.
• Without standards, manufacturers of networking
products have no common ground on which to build their
systems.
• Interconnecting products from various vendors would be
difficult, if not impossible.
• Without agreed standards, communication would be
difficult (if not impossible)

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 Network
fundamental
IB Computer Science
s
Topic 3.1.3
Describe how communication over
networks is broken down into
different layers

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 Exam note!
This curriculum point requires you to have an
awareness of the seven-layer OSI-model, but an
understanding of the functioning of each layer
is not required.

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Software application developers have obtain by
some standards in order to develop an
application capable of communication with
other software over a WAN (Internet). Imagine
a simple program that asks for services from an
online database. This process requires the
program to:

1. Pass the request through different layers.

2. Obtain an answer through different layers.

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Different layers serve different functions and use
different protocols for information exchange.
Organizing a network design in layers makes the
process less complex because any problem is broken
down into distinct modules.
The protocol of a layer carries out a sequence of
operations.

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Advantages of layers:
- Easy to manage.
- Greater understanding of each other.
- Common language for each layer.
- Makes protocol design easier.
- A manufacturer can focus on technologies of
a particular layer.
- Products of different manufacturers can
work together.

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OSI Model
The most-widely used networking standard is
the open systems interconnection model (OSI).
OSI Model was established by the international
standards organization (ISO) and aims to
facilitate communication across a variety of
systems. It contains 7 layers.

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TCP/IP (Protocol Model)
The TCP/IP (Transfer Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) describes all the functions that take
place at each layer of protocols within the
TCP/IP suit. It is a hierarchical model protocol
that models and represents all the functionality
required for successful communication between
users. Its functionality is structured into four
abstraction layers.

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 Simplified TCP/IP Model
• Program that sends out
Application the data (HTML/SMTP)

• Data is broken
Transmissio into
n packets (TCP)

• Packets are
Network addressed with
destination and
sender’s address

• Packets are
Link converted into binary
and sent

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4 Network Access Media and devices
 Network
fundamental
IB Computer Science
s
Topic 3.1.4
Identify the technologies required to
provide a VPN

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 See 3.1.1

VPN = Virtual Private Network

• It uses the internet to allow people to log into a network
remotely and access its resources, but encrypts the connection
to thwart eavesdroppers.
• If your company sets you up with a VPN, you can access your
corporate intranet, file servers or email from home or a coffee
shop – just as if you were using it in your office.
• This makes VPN a popular way to support remote workers,
especially in fields where privacy is paramount, such as health
care.

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VPN

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Two fundamental VPN technologies
• Encryption is the process of encoding data so that only a
computer with the right decoder will be able to read and
use it.
• Tunnelling involves establishing and maintaining a logical
network connection (that may contain intermediate hops).
On this connection, packets constructed in a specific VPN
protocol format are encapsulated within some other base
or carrier protocol, then transmitted between VPN client
and server, and finally de-encapsulated on the receiving
side

In a VPN, the computers at each end of the tunnel encrypt the

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Tunnelling

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 VPN Technologies
• Hardware and software requirements:
1- Internet access.
2- VPN software (client software, utilities and server software). VPN software
enables private communication over the internet.
3- VPN routers.
4- VPN appliances.
VPN concentrators ( a single device to handle a large number of incoming VPN
tunnels).
5- VPN servers.
• Secure VPN:
- All traffic on the VPN must be encrypted , authenticated, and then sent along
virtual tunnels.
1- Internet protocol security protocol (IPSec) which functions in both transport and
tunnel mode: allows the secure transmission of data over public IP-based network.
2- Secure sockets layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security.
 VPN Technologies
• Trusted VPN:
- All traffic on the VPN relies on the security of a providers network to protect the
network.
1- Technologies for trusted layer 2 VPNs include:
- ATM circuits.
- Frame relay circuits.
2- Technologies for trusted layer 3 VPNs include:
- Multiprotocol label switching.

• Hybrid VPN:
- A combination of both secure and trusted technologies or a combination of two
VPN technologies.
 Common VPN Types:
1- Site to site VPN:
- This type of VPN connects entire networks and facilitates secure data interchange
between different sites.

2- Remote Access VPN:

- This type of VPN connects individual hosts to private networks and facilitates
teleworkers who need to access their company’s network securely using the
internet.
- Every host has VPN client software installed.
VPN benefits:
1- Communication is easier.
2- Companies take advantage of the internet to provide secure
connections.
3- Decreases operational costs versus traditional Wide Area Network.
4- Improves overall productivity.
5- Improves productivity of remote employees.
6- Improves security.
7- Offers flexibility to employees to take advantage of the company’s
intranet over an existing internet connection.
8- Offers global networking opportunities.
9- Provides teleworker support.
10- Reduces environmental footprint.
11- Reduces travel times and travelling costs for remote users.
Video: How VPNs work

YouTube link: https://youtu.be/_wQTRMBAvz

g
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Basic checklist for VPN
 A LAN that is connected to the internet.
 One computer outside of the LAN that is also
connected to the internet.
 VPN client and server running on the lone
machine
and the original LAN
 Internet connection

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 Network
fundamental
IB Computer Science
s
Topic 3.1.5
Evaluate the use of a
VPN

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The rise of telecommuting
• Through a VPN, it is possible to connect to a LAN that is
protected from outside access through the internet.
• Therefore, it is possible for workers to connect to a
company's internal network from almost anywhere in
the world.
• This gave rise to home offices, as many office jobs do
not require consultation and hence can be completed
from home.
• This remote working is also called telecommuting.

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 Exam note!
This curriculum point requires you to evaluate the
different options.
That is exam speak for knowing/discussing
advantages, disadvantages and for comparing them
against one another to arrive at a conclusion.

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A perspective on telecommuting

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R2whPdnC
GrM

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Data transmission
IB Computer Science
Topic 3.1.6
Define the terms: protocol &
data
packet

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Definition: Protocol
Set of rules for data communication over a
network

OR

A protocol defines the format and the order of

messages exchanged between two or more
communicating entities, as well as the actions taken
on the transmission and/or receipt of a message or
other event.
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Definition: Data Packet
Data
Anything in a form suitable for use with a computer… such
as binary. Typically data is meaningless.

Packet
A small unit of data used in network communication.

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Make up of a data packet

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Data packets moving

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Data transmission
IB Computer Science
Topic 3.1.7
Explain why protocols are
necessary

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Summary
• Protocols are the set of rules computers follow
when communicating across a network.
• Without them, no information can be transmitted
as computers don't know how to interpret the
signals coming through the network.

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Essential functions of protocols
• Ensure data integrity
• Manage flow control
• Prevent deadlock
• Manage congestion
• Perform error checking

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Data integrity
• Data integrity, in the context of networking, refers to the
overall completeness, accuracy and consistency of data.
• Data integrity must be imposed when sending data
through
a network.
I sent you “A”. Did you get Yip, I received
it? “A”

Node A Node B

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Flow control
• Flow control is the mechanism that ensures the rate at
which a sender is transmitting is in proportion with the
receiver’s receiving capabilities.
• Flow control is utilized especially in cases where the
sending device can send data much faster than the receiver
can digest.

Keep up!

Node A Node B

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Deadlock
• A deadlock is a situation where two nodes or processes are
trying to access the same node at exactly the same moment,
causing neither to be able to proceed.
• It is then up to the relevant protocol to stop both, and
re- queue them so that they can happen sequentially,
letting traffic flow.

Node B

Node A
Node C

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Congestion control
• Congestion refers to a network state where a node or link
carries so much data that it may deteriorate network service
quality, resulting in queuing delay, frame or data packet loss and
the blocking of new connections.
• In modern networks, avoiding congestive collapse involves the
application of network congestion avoidance techniques along
with congestion control.

I missed that last bit?

Node A Node B

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Error checking
• Error checking or detection refers to the techniques used
to detect noise or other impairments introduced into data
while it is transmitted from source to destination.
• Error detection often makes use of parity bits, bits at the
end
of a packet that are calculated to be either a 1 or 0.

This one looks bad!

Node A Node B

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Model Exam Question

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Data transmission
IB Computer Science
Topic 3.1.8
Explain why the speed of data
transmission across a network
can vary

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Connection speed averages
• Dedicated LAN connections
– UTP Copper cable (100Mbps)
– Fibre optic cable (5-100Gbps)
– WiFi (10-150Mbps)
• Broadband (WAN) connections
– DSL (2-16Mbps)
– Fibre optic (20-100Mbps)
– 3G (± 1 Mbps)
– 4G (± 20 Mbps)

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 Warning! Network ≠ Internet
When talking about network speeds, we often only think of
Internet connection speeds.
This curriculum point talks about network transfers IN
GENERAL, not just those that measure Internet connectivity.
Remember to think of situations like Wi-Fi networks in an
office, school networks accessing a shared storage space,
etc.

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Primary concept: Traffic
• The primary concept is that speeds vary due to traffic.
• The more network traffic, the slower the data transfer
on a particular connection will be.

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Secondary causes: Time of day

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Secondary causes: Distance

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Secondary causes: infrastructure

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Tertiary causes of speed variance
• Environmental issues (like temperature, interference, etc.)
• Infrastructure limitations due to financial reasons
(cheaper equipment, etc.)
• The type of data being transmitted (large files, streaming
data, etc.)

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Data transmission
IB Computer Science
Topic 3.1.9
Explain why compression of data is
often necessary when transmitting
across a network

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Definition: Compression
Data compression involves encoding
information to use fewer bits than the
original data entity.

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Key concept: Time!
• The smaller we can compress data, the more data we
can
send in the same amount of time.
• The consequence of this is that data can be disseminated
more rapidly.

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 Why
bother to
compress?

Backups/archiving Encryption/
protection
File transfer Media file
transfer over
the web

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Lossless vs Lossy Compression

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Qo5prktYNQ

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Video: Compression

Link (YouTube): https://youtu.be/OtDxDvCpPL4

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Data transmission
IB Computer Science
Topic 3.1.10
Outline the characteristics of
different
transmission media

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Types of media

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Characteristics of media
We can
compare Security
different media
types on 4 Reliability
different
points: Cost
Speed

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 UTP – Unshielded Twisted Pair
•(metal)
Also called Ethernet cables

• OK security, if encrypted
Security
• Susceptible to EMI
Reliability
• <£1 per meter
Co
st • 100Mbps – 1 Gbps

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Fibre-optic (glass)

• Very secure, difficult to break in

Security
• Generally fragile
Reliability
• £2-£8 per meter
Co
st • 5 – 100 Gbps
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Radio waves (WLAN/Wi-Fi)

• Very unsecure, unless encrypted

Security
• Susceptible to interference
Reliability
• Technically free
Co
st • 5-200 Mbps
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Data transmission
IB Computer Science
Topic 3.1.11
Explain how data is transmitted
by
packet switching

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Definitions
• Packet: A packet is the unit of data that is
routed between an origin and a destination
on the Internet or any other packet-
switched network.
• Packet switching: Packet-switching
describes the type of network in which
relatively small units of data called packets
are routed through a network based on the
destination address contained within each
packet.
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How it works

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 Video: Packet Switching

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewrBalT_eBM&feature=iv&src_vid=WwyJGzZmBe8&annotation_id=annotation_667002

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Video: Undersea Cables

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IlAJJI-
qG2k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3c1ih2NJEg
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 Wireless
networking
IB Computer Science
Topic 3.1.12
Outline the advantages and
disadvantages of wireless
networks

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Advantages
• Uses unlicensed radio spectrum
– Doesn't cost anything
• LANs can be set up without cabling
– Doesn't take space or time to lay the cables. No extra cost on
cables
• WiFi can support roaming between access points
– People can switch from router to router automatically depending
in which connection is best
• Global standards (eg. 802.11n)
• Setup costs are minimal
– Many types are available on the market and they are affordable

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Disadvantages
• Interference
– as the 2.4GHz spectrum is often crowded with other devices
• Limited Range
• WEP
– this encryption is not difficult to hack and WPA2 has solved
this problem
• Access Points
– these can be used to steal data
• Health Concerns

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 In an exam be prepared to
•EVALUATE
What’s good about it?
• What’s bad about it?
• When is it most appropriate?

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 Wireless
networking
IB Computer Science
Topic 3.1.13
Describe the hardware and software
components of a wireless network

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Hardware components
• Node: PC, Laptop, Tablet, Printer
• Wireless network interface card
• Radio waves (Bluetooth/WiFi)
• Connection point: Wireless AP / Router

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Software components
• Network Operating System (with
drivers)
• Protocol stack (TCP/IP)
• Applications (Browser/File explorer)

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 Wireless
networking
IB Computer Science
Topic 3.1.14
Describe the characteristics of wireless
networks

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Types of wireless networks

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Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)
• Also called Wireless LAN (WLAN)
• Used in laptops/mobile devices to connect wirelessly to
home network
• Most preferred network type to implement a home
network
• Allows relatively slow to fast data transmissions
(depending on the version)
• Backwards compatible with most older Wi-Fi standards
(a/b/g/n)
• Small transmitting radius makes it suited for homes,
usually
<20m
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 WiMAX
• WiMAX = Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
• Designed for large distance high speed internet access
• Relatively cheap method of providing internet over a large area -
suited for poorer countries
• Rivalled by Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard
• Can be used as a form of wireless variant of DSL phone transmission
lines

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3G (Third Generation)
• The primary way mobile phones access the internet today
• Allows the tunnelling of phone lines (mobiles don't have
to switch back to phone network when receiving a call
• Relatively fast

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 Wireless
networking
IB Computer Science
Topic 3.1.15
Describe the different methods of
network security

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 What is security?
Making sure systems don’t get hacked?
Security breaches can happen without being
hacked…

Making sure data is not stolen or leaked?

But what about systems where data is public?

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Security properties
Its much easier to think of these three
factors when talking about security.

1. Confidentiality
2. Integrity
• Maintaining accuracy of data
3. Availability
• DoS attacks
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Why is securing systems so hard?
• Cannot plan for every eventuality
• The “arms race”
• Systems can unravel from a weak
point
• Users!

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Authentication
Is someone who they claim to be?

• One factor authentication

• Two factor authentication
• Three factor authentication

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One factor
Something you know.

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Two factor
Something you have.

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Three factor
Something you are.

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Firewalls
• Hardware or Software (or hybrid of both).
• Controls incoming and outgoing network traffic.
• Analyse data packets based on pre-determined set of
rules.

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MAC Address
• Media Access Control address.
• Hard-coded into devices by manufacturers
• Managed by the IEEE (institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers).

• Are used to identify specific pieces of hardware.

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Physical security
• Locked doors?
• Security personnel?
• Cages / sealed units?
• Reinforced/secure rooms?
• Walls with barbed wire?
• Ravenous guard dogs?

People? Natural
Disasters?
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Encryption
Only focusing on encryption over wireless
networks

• UserID (and passwords)

• PSK (pre-shared key)
• WEP (dead)
• WPA / WPA2

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WEP
Wireless Equivalent Privacy

Very simple algorithm…

… that was very quickly broken!

• Superseded by WPA in 2003

• Deprecated in 2004.

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 WPA / WPA2
• Wi-Fi Protected Access (I or
II) WPA WPA2
2004 - 2006 2006 onwards

Intrusion can be made from outside the Intrusion can only come from since who
network. already has access to the network.

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 Wireless
networking
IB Computer Science
Topic 3.1.16
Evaluate the advantages and
disadvantages of each method
of network security

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 Exam note!
This curriculum point requires you to evaluate the
different options.
That is exam speak for knowing/discussing
advantages, disadvantages and for comparing them
against one another to arrive at a conclusion.

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userID
• Advantages:
– Access rights to the network can be set for each user
– User groups can be created to manage user rights in
batches
• Disadvantages:
– A userID can be stolen
– system can be bypassed
– Does not protect against intercepting messages in
the network

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Encryption security
• Advantages:
– A strong encryption is very hard to break
– Computer are fast enough to encrypt data on-the-fly
• Disadvantages:
– Often, users are lazy and take a password that is easy
to guess
– The password needs to be transmitted over the network
to receiver to allow them to read the message
– Some encryptions are designed to have backdoors built
in

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