Module No 1 Surveying
Module No 1 Surveying
SURVEYING
Surveying, Types of
surveying, Surveying
instruments, Error,
Mistake, Accuracy,
Precision
Course Description
This course deals with: Measurement of distance and distance corrections, the
use of surveying instruments, area computations, balancing the traverse,
elevation determination, and leveling. Stadia surveying, topographic surveying,
triangulation and trilateration, missing data, irregular boundaries, and global
positioning system.
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PRETEST
Part 1 – 1. Define Surveying
2. Name the different Kinds of Surveys and Differentiate Each one
3. Differentiate Errors, Mistake, Accuracy, Precision, Residual and Probable
Error
Part 2 – 1. Name Methods of Measuring distances
2. Name Instruments for measuring distances
3. What are the different corrections in taping?
Part 3 – 1. What is levelling?
2. Name instruments in Levelling
3. What are the errors in Levelling?
Part 4 – 1. What are the Methods of Levelling?
2. Differentiate the Methods of Levelling
Part 5 – 1. Identify the different kinds of transit
2. Identify the parts of the Engineers transit
3. How do you measure horizontal angles?
Part 6 – 1. Name and identify angular measurements and directions
2. What are the different compass types?
3. How do you use and read the compass?
Cadastral survey – is the sub-field of cadastre and surveying that specializes in the
establishment and re-establishment of real property boundaries. It is an important
component of the legal creation of properties. A cadastral surveyor must apply both the
spatial-measurement principles of general surveying and legal principles such as
respect of neighboring titles.
City Surveys – The survey made in connection with the construction of streets,
water supply and sewage lines fall under this category.
Construction Survey – or building surveying (otherwise known as "staking", "stake-
out", "lay-out", "setting-out" or "BS") is to stake out reference points and markers that
will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings. These
markers are usually staked out according to a suitable coordinate system selected for
the project.
Industrial Surveys – The industrial survey is a field survey in which statistical data on
economic activities in the industry field are. collected from a sample of selected
industrial establishments according to the establishments framework in the
Establishments Economic Survey.
Mine Surveys – is a branch of mining science and technology. It includes all
measurements, calculations and mapping which serve the purpose of ascertaining and
documenting information
at all stages from prospecting to exploitation and utilizing mineral deposits both by
surface and underground working
Route Surveys – A route survey supplies the data necessary to determine alignment,
grading, and earthwork quantities for the design and construction of various
engineering projects such as roads, railroads, pipelines, and utilities. When accuracy
matters, your choice of land surveying company’s matters.
Topographic Survey – Topographic Survey. Topographic survey is simply the
recording of coordinates and height data for a particular survey area. This data can be
used to create spot height maps, contour maps, or more complex terrain models of the
surveyed area.
Surveying is primarily classified as under:
1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic Surveying
Plane Surveying is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is
considered as a plane and the spheroidal shape is neglected. All triangles formed by
survey lines are considered plane triangles. The level line is considered straight and all
plumb lines are considered parallel. In everyday life were are concerned with small
portion of earth’s surface and the above assumptions seems to be reasonable in light of
the fact that the length of an arc 12 kilometers long lying in the earth’s surface is only
1cm greater than the subtended chord and further that the difference between the sum
of the angles in a plane triangle and the sum of those in a spherical triangle is only one
second for a triangle at the earth’s surface having an area of 195 sq. km.
Geodetic Surveying is that type of surveying in which the shape of
the earth is taken into account. All lines lying in the surface are
curved lines and the triangles are spherical triangles. It therefore,
involves spherical trigonometry. All Geodetic surveys include work
of larger magnitude and high degree of precision. The object of
geodetic survey is to determine the precise position on the surface
of the earth, of a system of widely distant points which form
control stations to which surveys of less precision may be referred.
The Purpose of Surveying
Engineering surveying is a general term that covers any survey work carried out in
connection with the construction of an engineering project, such as a road, a building, a
bridge etc. The main purposes are listed below.
1. To produce up-to-date Engineering Plans of the areas in which the work will be
carried out. These plans form the basis for the design of the construction, and so the
reliability of the design depends heavily on the attention to detail with which the survey is
carried out.
2. To determine the required areas and volumes of land and materials needed
during construction.
3. To ensure that the construction takes place in the correct relative and absolute
position on the ground.
4. To record the final position of the construction, including any design changes.
5. To provide permanent control points from which particularly important projects
can be surveyed - such as regular monitoring a construction to check for movement.
Importance of Surveying to Civil Engineers
The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as construction of
highways, bridges, tunnels, dams etc are based upon surveying measurements.
Moreover, during execution, project of any magnitude is constructed along the lines
and points established by surveying.
Thus, surveying is a basic requirement for all Civil Engineering projects.
Other principal works in which surveying is primarily utilized are
• to fix the national and state boundaries;
• to chart coastlines, navigable streams and lakes;
• to establish control points;
• to execute hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping; and
• to prepare topographic map of land surface of the earth.
How are these Measured and which instrument should I use?
Distances (Horizontal)
Chaining, Taping (steel tape), tachometry (theodolite), electronic (EDM, GPS)
Angles
Tachometry (theodolite, total station),
Heights
Leveling Equipment (level, theodolite, total station)
Conversion of units in distances
Surveying Measurements 1 foot = 12 inches, 1 yard = 3 foot, 1 pole = 16.5 feet, 1 rod = 1
pole = 16.5 feet, 1 perch = 1 rod = 1 pole = 16.5 feet, 1 chain = 66 feet, 1 chain = 4 poles =
66 feet, 1 furlong = 660 feet, 1 furlong = 40 poles, 10 chains = 1 furlong = 660 feet, 1 link
(of a chain) = .66 feet = 7.92 inches 100 links = 1 chain = 66 feet = 4 poles, 1 mile = 5280
feet, 1 mile = 1760 yards, 1 mile = 320 poles, 1 mile = 80 chains, 1 mile = 8 furlongs, 3
miles = 1 league
Below is a summary of eight different types of surveying equipment and their uses:
Chains and Tapes
Taking accurate measurements is one of the most important tasks a land surveyor must
complete. There is a variety of tools that can be used to take measurements including
tapes, rulers, chains, and laser devices. Pocket tapes are ideal for small-scale
measurements while measuring wheels, nylon coated steel tapes (Nyclad tapes), and
fiberglass tape measures can be used for larger distances.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• Nyclad Tape Measures – Ideal for jobs requiring accurate measurements in
harsh climates or inclement weather, nylon-coated steel tapes offer a flexible and durable
option with the added benefit of an expansion coefficient similar to that of a steel drag
chain.
• Fiberglass Tape Measures – Available in a variety of lengths, fiberglass tape
measures are plastic-coated for durability but remain lightweight enough for easy
portability and are less likely to kink the way a steel tape can.
• Measuring Wheels – Also known as a surveyor’s wheel, measuring wheels
feature a rotating wheel that measures the distance between two points while walking
and is best suited for inspection or estimation work.
• Laser Measuring Devices – For the ultimate in precise measurement, laser
technology is capable of measuring inclination, slope distance, and azimuth, in addition
to making both vertical and horizontal calculations.
View Laser Technology, Inc. products for utilities inspection and forestry work.
Compasses and Clinometers
A compass is an essential piece of equipment when surveying in unfamiliar territory,
backcountry, or just orienting your position on a map. Compasses can be used to
measure distances between two points while clinometers are used to measure the angle
or elevation of slopes.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• SILVA Ranger 2.0 Quad Compass – Ideal for measuring direction over long
distances, this mirror-sighted compass features quadrant graduations and offers a high
degree of accuracy, precision, and durability.
• Brunton Omni-Slope Sighting Clinometer – This clinometer features a precision
pendulum for fast, accurate readings and is housed in lightweight aluminum for
durability and portability.
• Brunton TruArc 20-Mirror Compass - A modern upgrade to a trusted classic,
this mirror-righted compass features the TruArc global needle system for consistent
polarity and reduced magnetic interference. It also features a map magnifier, an Ever-
North magnet, and a magnified readout.
Transits and Theodolites
These tools are used to measure both horizontal and vertical angles.
Both tools have a minimum accuracy of one minute of angle, though
the theodolite is generally recognized as the more accurate of the
two, measuring angles to an accuracy of one-tenth of a second angle.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• Brunton GEO Pocket Transit – Equipped with a rare-earth
magnet and sapphire jewel bearing, this transit allows for quick,
simultaneous trend and plunge measurements, as well as readable
dip measurements.
• SECO Total Station and Theodolite Rucksack – This heavy-
duty but lightweight pack was designed to securely carry surveying
instruments like a total station or theodolite.
Levels
A level can be used to read an elevation and determine differences in elevation
between two points. These tools can be handheld, optical or digital, and are typically
used in conjunction with level rods or tripods.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• Sokkia SDL50 Digital Level 28x – Offering easy, accurate measurements at
the touch of a button, this digital level minimizes human error, combining user-
friendly convenience with optimal functionality.
• SECO Hand Levels – For up-close work in even the roughest terrain, these
hand levels feature lightweight but heavy-duty construction with both internal and
replaceable external vial modules and 3-line mirrors to ensure a deviation of less
than ¼ inch per 20 feet.
• Spectra Precision Laser Level LL500 – Designed for long-range
measurements across an entire site, this precision laser level features rugged
construction, highly accurate readings, a self-leveling system, and built-in “out of
level” shutoff.
Safety Gear
Land surveyors work in all kinds of conditions and climates, but
safety is always the primary concern. High-visibility gear and safety
headwear are a must for all outdoor work crews.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• 3A Safety 3 Season Waterproof Thermal Jacket – Made with
DUPONT-treated Teflon fabric, this waterproof jacket keeps you warm
in even the harshest weather conditions while also offering maximum
visibility.
• ML Kishigo Safari Hat – These full-brim hats offer 360-degree
reflectivity while also keeping your head cool and well ventilated.
• SECO Class 2 Safety Utility Vest – Designed specifically for
surveyors, this utility vest is made from durable ANSI/ISEA-
compliant materials with a padded collar for comfort and multiple
pockets for convenience.
Prisms and Reflectors
Prism systems are used to secure control points at a comfortable and accessible
height for pinpoint accuracy. These devices can be mounted on surveying poles and
used in conjunction with electronic distance measuring (EDM) instruments for
improved accuracy.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• Sokkia Economy Tilting Prism – Available at an affordable price point, this
tilting prism allows the user to quickly adjust the target from behind for accurate
sighting.
• SECO Double Right Angle Prism – For compact size and precision, this
double right-angle prism allows for easy determination of right-angle or
perpendicular points between two targets.
• GeoMax GRZ122 360° High Accuracy Prism – This high-performance prism
features a built-in point that allows the reflector to be positioned directly on the mark
for pinpoint accuracy.
Magnetic Locators
When conducting a land survey, it is necessary to identify the location of certain
features, such as manhole and utility covers, steel and iron pipes, underground
tanks, and survey corner markers. Magnetic locators can be used to quickly and
precisely locate ferrous materials like iron, steel, and rebar.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• Schonstedt Maggie Magnetic Locator – This “next generation” magnetic
locator offers single-handed operation, maximum sensitivity, precision, and state-
of-the-art ergonomics for comfortable use.
• ChrisNik HoundDog Magnetic Locator – With integrated Fence Ignoring
Technology (FIT), this magnetic locator can sniff out hard-to-find survey markers
even in the presence of metal fences and metal buildings.
• Subsurface Instruments Magnetic Locator – This combo kit includes both
pipe & cable and magnetic locating, making it the perfect kit for utility-locating
professionals in all industries, from gas to sewer, electric, water, and telecom.
Poles, Tripods, and Mounts
Even the most precise of surveying instruments can be thrown off by an unstable mount.
Poles, tripods, and other mounting accessories are essential for surveyors to ensure solid,
stable readings. These mounts can be used for all kinds of surveying equipment,
including prisms, lasers, and levels.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• SECO Quick Release 8ft Robotics Pole – Made from heavy-duty carbon fiber, this
robotics pole offers an anti-rotation quick release feature and easy push-button operation.
• SECO Tri-Max Dual Lock Tripod – Offering a combination of dual locks, quick
release, and twist lock features, this surveying-grade tripod delivers certified accuracy
and unmatched stability.
• Dutch Hill Heavy-Duty Column Clamp for Instruments – This lightweight
aluminum clamp features a standard 5/8-11 mounting stud with a 6-inch mounting plate
for use with a wide variety of surveying instruments & laser levels.
When it comes to land surveying, having the right equipment is essential. Whether you
are measuring angles, distances, or elevations, having the best tool for the job will ensure
speedy and accurate measurements for every application.
PURPOSE OF FIELD NOTES
Field notes are the record of work done in the field. They consist of
lengths, angles, areas, sketches, descriptions, and other data. They
may be taken by hand, or can be computer-generated.
THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD FIELD NOTES
PERMANENT RECORDS
Surveying field notes, whether in books or on electronic data recorders, are the only
permanent record of work done in the field.
TIME
If they are lost, incorrect, damaged or incomplete, much of the time and money
invested in making accurate records has been wasted!
MONEY
Field books contain data which has been collected over weeks or months. The cost of
collecting this data can range in the thousands of dollars.
LITIGATION
Property surveys are subject to court review. The status of the field book can be a very
important factor in litigation.
EFFICIENCY
The information in the field book is used by office personnel to make drawings or
calculations. Complete and correct notes are essential.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR GOOD NOTES
ACCURACY
By far the most important aspect of field notes.
INTEGRITY - (Complete)
If the field crew fails to collect all important data, costly delays can occur in the
office.
LEGIBILITY
Major errors can occur if your notes can't be easily read.
ARRANGEMENT
Following a standard note format, save time and money when trying to follow
notes.
CLARITY
A well planned survey with clear special notations and sketches will greatly add to
the understanding of the survey.
TYPES OF NOTES
TABULATIONS
Table of data, for differential leveling or profile leveling, taping or
traverse data, etc.
DESCRIPTIONS
Information about area, benchmarks, turning points, weather,
survey party, etc.
DIAGRAMS
sketch of the area, noting landmarks, roads and buildings,
benchmarks, angles, and distances
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT
NOTES
Always give the project name, location, and date.
You can document and correlate surveys by time.
Indicate the weather conditions.
Weather can point out errors made by the survey party, and errors due to poor
visibility or high reflection, expansion by heat, or high wind.
Temperature.
Wind direction.
Wind speed.
Atmosphere.
List the members of the crew on the survey and their duties.
Party members are listed for documentation and future reference.
Note the instruments used, their model and serial number.
The instrument number is listed for documentation and to note accuracy, and for
future reference if instrument errors are later discovered.
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT
NOTES
Use the Reinhardt system of lettering.
Reinhardt lettering is used in drafting and engineering lettering, and is used for clarity
and simplicity.
Avoid crowding - Paper is cheap.
Field books are assumed to be original. If a copy is made, the copy must be so marked,
and is not admissible in court. Original notes are those taken in field with
measurements.
Put down what you read, do not selectively edit data in the field.
Do not do calculations in your head, write them out for future reference.
Write all notes in notebook, not on other paper for later transfer.
NEVER erase recorded data on the data page.
Erasures look like improper modifications have been made. If an error occurs, draw a
single line through the improper part while allowing it to remain legible. VOID large
areas if needed.
There is less of a problem with erasures on the description, calculation, and sketch
pages.
Check your data for correctness before you leave the field.
Information found in the field notebook
Field notes are the only record that is left after the field survey party
departs the survey site. If these notes are not clear and complete, the
field survey was of little value. It is therefore necessary that your
field notes contain a complete record of all of the measurements
made during the survey and that they include, where necessary,
sketches and narrations to clarify the notes. The following guidelines
apply.
LETTERING.- All field notes should be lettered legibly. The lettering should be in freehand,
vertical or slanted Gothic style, as illustrated in basic drafting. A fairly hard pencil or a
mechanical lead holder with a 3H or 4H lead is recommended. Numerals and decimal points
should be legible and should permit only one interpretation.
FORMAT.- Notes must be kept in the regular field notebook and not on scraps of
paper for later transcription. Separate surveys should be recorded on separate pages
or in different books. The front cover of the field notebook should be marked with
the name of the project, its general location, the types of measurements recorded,
the designation of the survey unit, and other pertinent information.
The inside front cover should contain instructions for the return of the notebook, if
lost. The right-hand pages should be reserved as an index of the field notes, a list of
party personnel and their duties, a list of the instruments used, dates and reasons
for any instrument changes during the course of the survey, and a sketch and
description of the project.
Throughout the remainder of the notebook, the beginning and ending
of each day'swork should be clearly indicated. Where pertinent, the
weather, including temperature and wind velocities, should also be
recorded. To minimize recording errors, someone other than the
recorder should check and initial all data entered in the notebook.
Excluding gross errors, which were discussed above, there are two general types of
errors, systematic and random.
Systematic Errors
A systematic error is an error that will always have the same magnitude and the
same algebraic sign under the same conditions.
In most cases, systematic errors are caused by physical and natural conditions that
vary in accordance with known mathematical or physical laws. Systematic errors
are caused by:
• Equipment out of calibration
• Use of insufficiently accurate computation equations (too
few terms in a series.)
• Failure to apply necessary geometric reductions of
measurements.
• Failure to apply necessary reductions of measurements due
to weather related conditions.
• Personal biases of the observer.
• Use of incorrect units (feet instead of meters.)
A systematic error of a single kind is cumulative. However, several
kinds of systematic errors occurring in any one measurement could
compensate for each other. Some examples of systematic errors are:
• EDM that measures 99.95 feet while indicating a measurement
of 100.00 feet.
• Refraction in vertical angles.
• Observer’s tendency to sight on near or distant sights in a
slightly different manner.
Although some systematic errors are difficult to detect, the surveyor
must recognize the conditions that cause such errors. Once the
conditions are known, the effect of these errors can be minimized as
follows:
• Turning angles (with theodolite or total station) in direct and
reverse modes.
• Balancing (maintaining similar distances between level and rod)
foresights and backsights.
• Calibrating all surveying equipment.
• Calibrating EDM’s yearly at a baseline calibration site.
When systematic errors cannot be eliminated by procedural changes,
corrections are applied to the measurements. These corrections are
documented in the user manuals of the equipment or in surveying
textbooks.
Undeterminable systematic errors can also be modeled into the
adjustment computation, but surveyors should not rely on this. They
must eliminate all the known systematic errors prior to proceeding
with any adjustment of the survey data.
Random (Accidental) Errors
A. Setting up Instrument
1. Be sure the tripod is in good condition and all hardware is snugly fitted.
2. Push the tripod shoes firmly into the ground. Pressure should be parallel to
each leg. Keep your foot lightly on foot piece when adjusting leg lengths.
3. Place the legs in a position that will require a minimum of walking around
the setup. In windy conditions, additional stability can be achieved if one leg is set
downwind.
4. If the ground is soft or muddy, drive long 50 x 100 millimeter (2" x 4”)
wedges or iron pipes 19 millimeters x 1 meter (3/4" x 36")in the ground to support the
tripod legs. Use duck boards to support the instrument man.
5. On warm asphalt pavement set the tripod shoes on stakes
that have been nailed to the pavement. Shading tripod feet from
direct sun may also be helpful.
6. Be sure that the instrument is exactly over the point.
7. Check the optical plummet after the instrument is set up
and just before moving to another point. If the instrument has
moved, check the angle just measured.
8. Recheck the instrument level. The bubble should hold one
position when the instrument is smoothly turned through one
circle.
9. Protect the instrument from direct exposure to the sun. Use
a parasol if necessary.
B. Setting Sights
1. When tribrach mounted targets are used, take the same
precautions as when setting up an instrument. With this
equipment, "forced centering" between targets and theodolite (and
vice versa) will greatly decrease the effects of plumbing errors in
traverse closures. Forced centering is especially beneficial in short
course traverses. Forced centering is the traverse procedure
whereby backsight, instrument point and foresight are
"leapfrogged". Once a tribrach is set over a point, it must stay
mounted on the tripod over that point for all uses. The instrument
and sights are transferred from point to point without disturbing
the tribrach setup.
2. Before picking up the instrument or the target, check to
see that the tribrach or the sighting device has not moved.
3. When setting a pole sight, plumb it with a precision
equal to that required for the total survey. A twenty second
error results from a sight that is 0.1 meters (0.32 feet) out of
plumb at 1,000 meters (3280.8 feet) away.
4. If a sight is set near ground level, check the line of sight
for obstructions or for excessive heat waves. When excessive
heat waves are present, ground level sights are not advisable.
C. Pointing
1. Tangent screw use When moving sighting device onto a target, always make the last
turn of the tangent screw clockwise. Clockwise movement increases the tension on the loading
springs. A final turn counterclockwise releases tension and the spring can hang up, causing a
“backlash" error.
2. Cross Hair Use
a. Consistency - Sight each object with the same part of the cross hair, preferably near the
center of the field of view. This practice will minimize small residual adjustment errors.
b. Technique - The human eye can estimate the center of a wide object more accurately
than it can line up two objects. For this reason, different pointing techniques should be used
depending on the type and apparent size of the sight in the telescope. When pointing on narrow
sights, such as the center of a red and white target or distant range pole, straddle the sight with
the double cross hairs. When pointing on wide sights, such as a lath or range pole at close range,
split the sight with the single cross hair.
D. Split Bubble Image A frequent error in zenith angle measurement is failure to adjust the
split bubble image into coincidence before reading the angle. If coincidence is not made, the
scale is not indexed to the vertical and significant errors can result. Always set the bubble before
each reading.
E. Measuring Angles Measure angles as rapidly as comfortably
possible with a uniform rhythm. Take the first reading at an object,
rather than fidgeting with the tangent screw trying to improve the
pointing. Too much pointing time increases the probability of error
through instrument settlement or atmospheric changes. Speed should
not be cultivated at the expense of good results. Accuracy is more
important than speed.
F. Reading the Circles and the Micrometer
1. Call Outs - Carefully read and call out each reading to the
recorder. Call out the entire reading each time so any large blunders
will be caught. Have the recorder repeat the reading to the
instrument man after it is recorded.
2. When using the old style instruments, always check the ten-
minute interval. This is done by counting the number of graduations
between opposite, corresponding degree marks, after the circle has
been brought into coincidence.
G. Analyzing Observation Sheets Many recording errors and inconsistencies can
be caught by carefully analyzing observation sheets. The following most important
items should be checked in the field by the recorder and then rechecked in the office.
They are:
1. Spreads between the seconds of direct and reverse readings should be
consistent and in the same direction throughout the set.
2. Ten minute reading errors can frequently be located by examining a set of
positions. This is the reason that it is highly recommended that the circle be closed
(angle between foresight and backsight observed and recorded) for each observation. If
one observation disagrees with all others by ten minutes, it is safe to assume that a
reading or recording error was made.
3. When a direct and reverse observation of a position are in different minutes, be
sure the average second value is coupled with the correct minute’s value.
4. When checking the direction to a station and either the minutes or the seconds
value of the backsight mean observation are greater than corresponding values to
another station, be sure the subtraction is correct.
5. Using the entire set of averaged angles in the calculation will normally prevent
errors in either of the above instances.
G. Analyzing Observation Sheets Many recording errors and inconsistencies
can be caught by carefully analyzing observation sheets. The following most
important items should be checked in the field by the recorder and then rechecked
in the office. They are:
1. Spreads between the seconds of direct and reverse readings should be
consistent and in the same direction throughout the set.
2. Ten minute reading errors can frequently be located by examining a set of
positions. This is the reason that it is highly recommended that the circle be closed
(angle between foresight and backsight observed and recorded) for each
observation. If one observation disagrees with all others by ten minutes, it is safe to
assume that a reading or recording error was made.
3. When a direct and reverse observation of a position are in different minutes,
be sure the average second value is coupled with the correct minute’s value.
4. When checking the direction to a station and either the minutes or the
seconds value of the backsight mean observation are greater than corresponding
values to another station, be sure the subtraction is correct.
5. Using the entire set of averaged angles in the calculation will normally
prevent errors in either of the above instances.
E. Refraction - When light waves pass from a medium of one density into a medium of a
different density, the rays change in direction (bend). The change in direction is called refraction. Since
sight lines are light rays, they are refracted, or bent, by changes in the atmosphere, causing small errors
in angular measurement. Normally, the lateral refraction is insignificant in most surveys, but its effects
can be further minimized by understanding and avoiding situations that generate the largest refraction
of line of sight.
1. When the sun shines on a barren, dark surface, the surface warms relatively quickly. This
warms the air and, if calm, it produces a column of warm, light air rising from the surface.
2. Other situations include:
Dark, freshly plowed fields lying between lighter colored areas of growing crops.
Clear areas between heavy forests.
Large bodies of warm water between land areas.
Open valleys bordered by bluffs on either side. If a line must pass over a valley, set the
observation points as far back from the edges of the valley as possible.
Air tends to layer parallel to the slopes of embankments or the base of foothills.
3. Minimizing Refraction - When refraction is probable in angles to be measured, or is suspected
in angles that have been measured, carefully examine the survey area and plan station locations to
avoid problem conditions listed above.
Make your observations when a breeze keeps the air stirred and prevents layering, or on cloudy days
or at night. Re observe lines under different atmospheric conditions, preferably when the wind is from
a different direction.
Miscellaneous Factors
A. Trigonometric Functions When trigonometric functions are
used in computations; the precision of the computations is affected
by the rates of change of the functions (the magnitude of the
differences between the functions for a given angular increment).
For example, to compute the impact of an angular error on the
precision of the ‘Sin’ function at a particular angle, use the
following equation:
precision_of_sin = sin(angle + error) - sin(angle)
sin(angle + error)
B. Example: The precision of a sin of an angle of 5° with an
error of 5” is 1:3610.
C. For a ‘Cosine’ and ‘Tangent’ replace the ‘sin’ in the above equation with
the respective trigonometric function. The following table shows the angles at
which trigonometric functions have the highest and lowest precision.
The goal of any survey should be to produce accurate and precise observations. Often
measurements with greater accuracy and precision requirements employ multiple
observations to minimize procedural errors.
Accuracy
Although they are known to be not exact, higher order NGS control points are
deemed of sufficient accuracy to be the control for all other less exact surveys.
Precision
residual error
the difference between a group of values observed and their
arithmetical mean
Provide yourself with a surveying field note book and start writing
down notes in surveying
https://theconstructor.org/surveying/traversing-surveying-types-methods/35684/
https://www.acsnsw.com.au/welcome/about-surveying/types-of-surveying/
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/residual%20error
https://www.toppr.com/guides/business-mathematics-and-statistics/correlation-and-regression/
probable-error-probable-limits/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probable_error