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Module No 1 Surveying

This course covers fundamental concepts in surveying such as measuring distances, using surveying instruments, area computations, balancing traverses, elevation determination, and leveling. Students will learn how to perform various surveying tasks and calculations. The course is organized into 9 modules that cover topics ranging from introductions to surveying to area computations and partitioning of land.

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Justin Grantos
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
196 views85 pages

Module No 1 Surveying

This course covers fundamental concepts in surveying such as measuring distances, using surveying instruments, area computations, balancing traverses, elevation determination, and leveling. Students will learn how to perform various surveying tasks and calculations. The course is organized into 9 modules that cover topics ranging from introductions to surveying to area computations and partitioning of land.

Uploaded by

Justin Grantos
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Fundamentals in

SURVEYING

VICENTE D. CARILLO JR.


Key words:

Surveying, Types of
surveying, Surveying
instruments, Error,
Mistake, Accuracy,
Precision
Course Description
This course deals with: Measurement of distance and distance corrections, the
use of surveying instruments, area computations, balancing the traverse,
elevation determination, and leveling. Stadia surveying, topographic surveying,
triangulation and trilateration, missing data, irregular boundaries, and global
positioning system.

Proper handling and utilization of surveying instrument will be taken. Students


will learn how to perform measurement of distance and apply distance
corrections, use and proper handling of surveying instruments, and perform
calculations related to area computations, latitude and departure computations,
DMD and DPD methods of land area determination, balancing the traverse,
elevation determination, and leveling. Perform stadia surveying, topographic
surveying, triangulation and trilateralization, missing data computation, and
subdivision of lots.
General objectives

learn the basics of geodetic survey, types of surveys and their


instruments

The students would also be able to operate the surveying instruments

The students would also be able to apply the different surveying


methods in geodetic survey
Breakdown of topics

The whole module will contain the following


lessons: Introduction to survey, Measurement of
horizontal distances, Measurement of vertical
distances, levelling methods, The Engineers transit,
Measurement of Angles and Direction, Traversing
and traverse computation, Omitted measurements,
Area computation and portioning of land
How the module is organized?
The Module is Organized into 9 Module. The subject will give you the basic
knowledge in surveying which will be part of the civil engineer’s profession.

Module 1. Introduction to Surveying


The module introduces surveying to the students to give them
background on what the course will be and how it will affect their being a
student in the civil engineering field. This includes the definition of surveying,
instruments used then and now, the survey field notes the difference between errors and
mistakes.
Module 2. Measurement of Horizontal Distances
The Module is all about measurement of horizontal distance, this will
prepare the student to learn measuring certain distances by using different
instrument in surveying, this will also discuss those people involve in in measuring
horizontal distance and how to correct measured distances.

Module 3. Measurement of Vertical Distances


The module is all about Measuring vertical distance, this is the time that the
student is introduced to a transit level and other different kinds of leveling
instrument. How they are being set up and to what errors may take during the
measuring of vertical distances.

Module 4. Levelling Methods


The module discusses the different leveling methods which are relevant to
the learner on how they going to know elevations of the land and what possible
method they would use in knowing the level or elevation of the land.
Module 5. The Engineers Transit and Theodolite
This module teaches the students the information and usage of the main instrument for
surveying which is the transit and the theodolite, it will discuss about the main components of the
instrument and how to measure horizontal angles.

Module 6. Measurement of Angles and Direction


The module will give the student knowledge on how to measure horizontal
angles and how to take the exact directions in measuring point to point in the boundary line of
the land.

Module 7. Traversing and Traverse Computation


The Module discusses how to take traverse of the two kinds using the engineers transit
and how to compute the traverse taken to give exact directions and also give exact data of the
land.
Module 8. Omitted Measurements
The Module discusses how to solve omitted measurements of land or
missing distances and other cases to close a traverse.

Module 9. Area Computation and Partitioning of Land


The Module discusses how to compute areas of land and how to partition
areas of land after the data gathering through the specific survey used. It also
discusses the different methods of area computation.
HOW TO USE THE MODULE

Guidelines in using the module


It is a must that all students using the module would follow the instruction
properly
The reader must read constantly the contents and fully understand the lessons
Make reading a habit and do research
Discover new ideas and widen up your vocabulary
Answer and make activities promptly and as required
Do not copy ideas of others
Show your individuality and uniqueness
Submit activities and evaluation on and before dead line
Make the module as a useful tool of learning
Always bring module in scheduled class hours
Course policies:
Strictly follow the university policies
All activities must be given emphasis, no activity should be left blank
To pass the subject, All submitted activities must have passing rate and pass the
standard criteria’s in grading. Performance and quality of work is important.
All forms of cheating and academic dishonesty is not tolerated and shall have
appropriate sanctions based on the university code
Manage time and schedule in all subjects and follow thoroughly the instructions
given in every subjects and modules

Submit activities through instructors email add with the following format
(Subject, Activity no.__, Course & Section, Full Name)
Late activities and those which doesn’t have file names will not be recorded.
Be mindful on dates of submission and other requirements.
Attend Classes and do diligence by reading additional materials on the subject.
PRETEST
Part 1 – 1. Define Surveying
2. Name the different Kinds of Surveys and Differentiate Each one
3. Differentiate Errors, Mistake, Accuracy, Precision, Residual and Probable
Error
Part 2 – 1. Name Methods of Measuring distances
2. Name Instruments for measuring distances
3. What are the different corrections in taping?
Part 3 – 1. What is levelling?
2. Name instruments in Levelling
3. What are the errors in Levelling?
Part 4 – 1. What are the Methods of Levelling?
2. Differentiate the Methods of Levelling
Part 5 – 1. Identify the different kinds of transit
2. Identify the parts of the Engineers transit
3. How do you measure horizontal angles?
Part 6 – 1. Name and identify angular measurements and directions
2. What are the different compass types?
3. How do you use and read the compass?

Part 7 – 1. Define traversing


2. What are the kinds of traverse?
3. Differentiate Latitude, Departure, Azimuth and Bearing

Part 8 – 1. What is an omitted measurement?


2. What are the cases of omitted measurement?
3. How do you find missing sides in a closed traverse?

Part 9 – 1. What are the methods of determining areas?


2. How is land sub divided?
3. What is DMD and DPD method?
Module 1 introduction
to surveying
OVER VIEW
IN THIS LESSON YOU WILL BE ABLE TO LEARN THE DEFINITION OF SURVEYING
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SURVEYING, SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS AND
INSTRUMENTS, THE FIELD NOTES AND ITS CONTENT, IDENTIFY THE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ERRORS AND MISTAKES AND KNOW WHAT IS RESIDUAL
AND PROBABLE ERROR
Pre Activity
Mind Conditioning
Give words that associates to this terms:
• Surveying
• Geodetic
• Cadastral Survey
• Topographic Survey
• Photogrammetric Survey
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Error
• Mistake
• Route Survey
Self-Assessment

Answer questions of pretest part 1 and rate learning from 1 to 10, 1


being the lowest and state reasons of rating such.
Discussion
Surveying is the process of analyzing and recording the
characteristics of a land area span to help design a plan or map for
construction. Total Station is the currently preferred Surveying
equipment in the industry.

The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as


construction of highways, bridges, tunnels, dams etc are based upon
surveying measurements. Moreover, during execution, project of
any magnitude is constructed along the lines and points established
by surveying.
Types of Surveys:

Cadastral survey – is the sub-field of cadastre and surveying that specializes in the
establishment and re-establishment of real property boundaries. It is an important
component of the legal creation of properties. A cadastral surveyor must apply both the
spatial-measurement principles of general surveying and legal principles such as
respect of neighboring titles.

City Surveys – The survey made in connection with the construction of streets,
water supply and sewage lines fall under this category.
Construction Survey – or building surveying (otherwise known as "staking", "stake-
out", "lay-out", "setting-out" or "BS") is to stake out reference points and markers that
will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings. These
markers are usually staked out according to a suitable coordinate system selected for
the project.

Forestry Survey – An inspection or survey of woodlands or forests to ascertain the


kinds, qualities, and number of trees on a given area.
Hydro graphic Survey – is the science of measurement and description of features which
affect maritime navigation, marine construction, dredging, offshore oil
exploration/offshore oil drilling and related activities. Strong emphasis is placed on
soundings, shorelines, tides, currents, seabed and submerged obstructions that relate to
the previously mentioned activities. The term hydrography is used synonymously to
describe maritime cartography, which in the final stages of the hydrographic process
uses the raw data collected through hydrographic survey into information usable by the
end user.

Industrial Surveys – The industrial survey is a field survey in which statistical data on
economic activities in the industry field are. collected from a sample of selected
industrial establishments according to the establishments framework in the
Establishments Economic Survey.
Mine Surveys – is a branch of mining science and technology. It includes all
measurements, calculations and mapping which serve the purpose of ascertaining and
documenting information
at all stages from prospecting to exploitation and utilizing mineral deposits both by
surface and underground working

Photogrammetric Survey – Photogrammetric Surveying. Photogrammetric surveyors


specialize in the science of obtaining reliable spatial information from photographic
images. Photogrammetrists analyze aerial and terrestrial photographs to obtain
information about physical objects and the environment.

Route Surveys – A route survey supplies the data necessary to determine alignment,
grading, and earthwork quantities for the design and construction of various
engineering projects such as roads, railroads, pipelines, and utilities. When accuracy
matters, your choice of land surveying company’s matters.
Topographic Survey – Topographic Survey. Topographic survey is simply the
recording of coordinates and height data for a particular survey area. This data can be
used to create spot height maps, contour maps, or more complex terrain models of the
surveyed area.
Surveying is primarily classified as under:
1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic Surveying

Plane Surveying is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is
considered as a plane and the spheroidal shape is neglected. All triangles formed by
survey lines are considered plane triangles. The level line is considered straight and all
plumb lines are considered parallel. In everyday life were are concerned with small
portion of earth’s surface and the above assumptions seems to be reasonable in light of
the fact that the length of an arc 12 kilometers long lying in the earth’s surface is only
1cm greater than the subtended chord and further that the difference between the sum
of the angles in a plane triangle and the sum of those in a spherical triangle is only one
second for a triangle at the earth’s surface having an area of 195 sq. km.
Geodetic Surveying is that type of surveying in which the shape of
the earth is taken into account. All lines lying in the surface are
curved lines and the triangles are spherical triangles. It therefore,
involves spherical trigonometry. All Geodetic surveys include work
of larger magnitude and high degree of precision. The object of
geodetic survey is to determine the precise position on the surface
of the earth, of a system of widely distant points which form
control stations to which surveys of less precision may be referred.
The Purpose of Surveying
Engineering surveying is a general term that covers any survey work carried out in
connection with the construction of an engineering project, such as a road, a building, a
bridge etc. The main purposes are listed below.
1. To produce up-to-date Engineering Plans of the areas in which the work will be
carried out. These plans form the basis for the design of the construction, and so the
reliability of the design depends heavily on the attention to detail with which the survey is
carried out.
2. To determine the required areas and volumes of land and materials needed
during construction.
3. To ensure that the construction takes place in the correct relative and absolute
position on the ground.
4. To record the final position of the construction, including any design changes.
5. To provide permanent control points from which particularly important projects
can be surveyed - such as regular monitoring a construction to check for movement.
Importance of Surveying to Civil Engineers

The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as construction of
highways, bridges, tunnels, dams etc are based upon surveying measurements.
Moreover, during execution, project of any magnitude is constructed along the lines
and points established by surveying.
Thus, surveying is a basic requirement for all Civil Engineering projects.
Other principal works in which surveying is primarily utilized are
• to fix the national and state boundaries;
• to chart coastlines, navigable streams and lakes;
• to establish control points;
• to execute hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping; and
• to prepare topographic map of land surface of the earth.
How are these Measured and which instrument should I use?
Distances (Horizontal)
Chaining, Taping (steel tape), tachometry (theodolite), electronic (EDM, GPS)
Angles
Tachometry (theodolite, total station),
Heights
Leveling Equipment (level, theodolite, total station)
Conversion of units in distances
Surveying Measurements 1 foot = 12 inches, 1 yard = 3 foot, 1 pole = 16.5 feet, 1 rod = 1
pole = 16.5 feet, 1 perch = 1 rod = 1 pole = 16.5 feet, 1 chain = 66 feet, 1 chain = 4 poles =
66 feet, 1 furlong = 660 feet, 1 furlong = 40 poles, 10 chains = 1 furlong = 660 feet, 1 link
(of a chain) = .66 feet = 7.92 inches 100 links = 1 chain = 66 feet = 4 poles, 1 mile = 5280
feet, 1 mile = 1760 yards, 1 mile = 320 poles, 1 mile = 80 chains, 1 mile = 8 furlongs, 3
miles = 1 league
Below is a summary of eight different types of surveying equipment and their uses:
Chains and Tapes
Taking accurate measurements is one of the most important tasks a land surveyor must
complete. There is a variety of tools that can be used to take measurements including
tapes, rulers, chains, and laser devices. Pocket tapes are ideal for small-scale
measurements while measuring wheels, nylon coated steel tapes (Nyclad tapes), and
fiberglass tape measures can be used for larger distances.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• Nyclad Tape Measures – Ideal for jobs requiring accurate measurements in
harsh climates or inclement weather, nylon-coated steel tapes offer a flexible and durable
option with the added benefit of an expansion coefficient similar to that of a steel drag
chain.
• Fiberglass Tape Measures – Available in a variety of lengths, fiberglass tape
measures are plastic-coated for durability but remain lightweight enough for easy
portability and are less likely to kink the way a steel tape can.
• Measuring Wheels – Also known as a surveyor’s wheel, measuring wheels
feature a rotating wheel that measures the distance between two points while walking
and is best suited for inspection or estimation work.
• Laser Measuring Devices – For the ultimate in precise measurement, laser
technology is capable of measuring inclination, slope distance, and azimuth, in addition
to making both vertical and horizontal calculations.
View Laser Technology, Inc. products for utilities inspection and forestry work.
Compasses and Clinometers
A compass is an essential piece of equipment when surveying in unfamiliar territory,
backcountry, or just orienting your position on a map. Compasses can be used to
measure distances between two points while clinometers are used to measure the angle
or elevation of slopes.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• SILVA Ranger 2.0 Quad Compass – Ideal for measuring direction over long
distances, this mirror-sighted compass features quadrant graduations and offers a high
degree of accuracy, precision, and durability.
• Brunton Omni-Slope Sighting Clinometer – This clinometer features a precision
pendulum for fast, accurate readings and is housed in lightweight aluminum for
durability and portability.
• Brunton TruArc 20-Mirror Compass - A modern upgrade to a trusted classic,
this mirror-righted compass features the TruArc global needle system for consistent
polarity and reduced magnetic interference. It also features a map magnifier, an Ever-
North magnet, and a magnified readout.
Transits and Theodolites
These tools are used to measure both horizontal and vertical angles.
Both tools have a minimum accuracy of one minute of angle, though
the theodolite is generally recognized as the more accurate of the
two, measuring angles to an accuracy of one-tenth of a second angle.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• Brunton GEO Pocket Transit – Equipped with a rare-earth
magnet and sapphire jewel bearing, this transit allows for quick,
simultaneous trend and plunge measurements, as well as readable
dip measurements.
• SECO Total Station and Theodolite Rucksack – This heavy-
duty but lightweight pack was designed to securely carry surveying
instruments like a total station or theodolite.
Levels
A level can be used to read an elevation and determine differences in elevation
between two points. These tools can be handheld, optical or digital, and are typically
used in conjunction with level rods or tripods.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• Sokkia SDL50 Digital Level 28x – Offering easy, accurate measurements at
the touch of a button, this digital level minimizes human error, combining user-
friendly convenience with optimal functionality.
• SECO Hand Levels – For up-close work in even the roughest terrain, these
hand levels feature lightweight but heavy-duty construction with both internal and
replaceable external vial modules and 3-line mirrors to ensure a deviation of less
than ¼ inch per 20 feet.
• Spectra Precision Laser Level LL500 – Designed for long-range
measurements across an entire site, this precision laser level features rugged
construction, highly accurate readings, a self-leveling system, and built-in “out of
level” shutoff.
Safety Gear
Land surveyors work in all kinds of conditions and climates, but
safety is always the primary concern. High-visibility gear and safety
headwear are a must for all outdoor work crews.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• 3A Safety 3 Season Waterproof Thermal Jacket – Made with
DUPONT-treated Teflon fabric, this waterproof jacket keeps you warm
in even the harshest weather conditions while also offering maximum
visibility.
• ML Kishigo Safari Hat – These full-brim hats offer 360-degree
reflectivity while also keeping your head cool and well ventilated.
• SECO Class 2 Safety Utility Vest – Designed specifically for
surveyors, this utility vest is made from durable ANSI/ISEA-
compliant materials with a padded collar for comfort and multiple
pockets for convenience.
Prisms and Reflectors

Prism systems are used to secure control points at a comfortable and accessible
height for pinpoint accuracy. These devices can be mounted on surveying poles and
used in conjunction with electronic distance measuring (EDM) instruments for
improved accuracy.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• Sokkia Economy Tilting Prism – Available at an affordable price point, this
tilting prism allows the user to quickly adjust the target from behind for accurate
sighting.
• SECO Double Right Angle Prism – For compact size and precision, this
double right-angle prism allows for easy determination of right-angle or
perpendicular points between two targets.
• GeoMax GRZ122 360° High Accuracy Prism – This high-performance prism
features a built-in point that allows the reflector to be positioned directly on the mark
for pinpoint accuracy.
Magnetic Locators
When conducting a land survey, it is necessary to identify the location of certain
features, such as manhole and utility covers, steel and iron pipes, underground
tanks, and survey corner markers. Magnetic locators can be used to quickly and
precisely locate ferrous materials like iron, steel, and rebar.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• Schonstedt Maggie Magnetic Locator – This “next generation” magnetic
locator offers single-handed operation, maximum sensitivity, precision, and state-
of-the-art ergonomics for comfortable use.
• ChrisNik HoundDog Magnetic Locator – With integrated Fence Ignoring
Technology (FIT), this magnetic locator can sniff out hard-to-find survey markers
even in the presence of metal fences and metal buildings.
• Subsurface Instruments Magnetic Locator – This combo kit includes both
pipe & cable and magnetic locating, making it the perfect kit for utility-locating
professionals in all industries, from gas to sewer, electric, water, and telecom.
Poles, Tripods, and Mounts
Even the most precise of surveying instruments can be thrown off by an unstable mount.
Poles, tripods, and other mounting accessories are essential for surveyors to ensure solid,
stable readings. These mounts can be used for all kinds of surveying equipment,
including prisms, lasers, and levels.
Recommended Products in this Category:
• SECO Quick Release 8ft Robotics Pole – Made from heavy-duty carbon fiber, this
robotics pole offers an anti-rotation quick release feature and easy push-button operation.
• SECO Tri-Max Dual Lock Tripod – Offering a combination of dual locks, quick
release, and twist lock features, this surveying-grade tripod delivers certified accuracy
and unmatched stability.
• Dutch Hill Heavy-Duty Column Clamp for Instruments – This lightweight
aluminum clamp features a standard 5/8-11 mounting stud with a 6-inch mounting plate
for use with a wide variety of surveying instruments & laser levels.
When it comes to land surveying, having the right equipment is essential. Whether you
are measuring angles, distances, or elevations, having the best tool for the job will ensure
speedy and accurate measurements for every application.
PURPOSE OF FIELD NOTES

Field notes are the record of work done in the field. They consist of
lengths, angles, areas, sketches, descriptions, and other data. They
may be taken by hand, or can be computer-generated.
THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD FIELD NOTES
PERMANENT RECORDS
Surveying field notes, whether in books or on electronic data recorders, are the only
permanent record of work done in the field.
TIME
If they are lost, incorrect, damaged or incomplete, much of the time and money
invested in making accurate records has been wasted!
MONEY
Field books contain data which has been collected over weeks or months. The cost of
collecting this data can range in the thousands of dollars.
LITIGATION

Property surveys are subject to court review. The status of the field book can be a very
important factor in litigation.
EFFICIENCY
The information in the field book is used by office personnel to make drawings or
calculations. Complete and correct notes are essential.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR GOOD NOTES
ACCURACY
By far the most important aspect of field notes.
INTEGRITY - (Complete)
If the field crew fails to collect all important data, costly delays can occur in the
office.
LEGIBILITY
Major errors can occur if your notes can't be easily read.
ARRANGEMENT
Following a standard note format, save time and money when trying to follow
notes.
CLARITY
A well planned survey with clear special notations and sketches will greatly add to
the understanding of the survey.
TYPES OF NOTES
TABULATIONS
Table of data, for differential leveling or profile leveling, taping or
traverse data, etc.
DESCRIPTIONS
Information about area, benchmarks, turning points, weather,
survey party, etc.
DIAGRAMS
sketch of the area, noting landmarks, roads and buildings,
benchmarks, angles, and distances
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT
NOTES
Always give the project name, location, and date.
You can document and correlate surveys by time.
Indicate the weather conditions.
Weather can point out errors made by the survey party, and errors due to poor
visibility or high reflection, expansion by heat, or high wind.
Temperature.
Wind direction.
Wind speed.
Atmosphere.
List the members of the crew on the survey and their duties.
Party members are listed for documentation and future reference.
Note the instruments used, their model and serial number.
The instrument number is listed for documentation and to note accuracy, and for
future reference if instrument errors are later discovered.
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT
NOTES
Use the Reinhardt system of lettering.
Reinhardt lettering is used in drafting and engineering lettering, and is used for clarity
and simplicity.
Avoid crowding - Paper is cheap.
Field books are assumed to be original. If a copy is made, the copy must be so marked,
and is not admissible in court. Original notes are those taken in field with
measurements.
Put down what you read, do not selectively edit data in the field.
Do not do calculations in your head, write them out for future reference.
Write all notes in notebook, not on other paper for later transfer.
NEVER erase recorded data on the data page.
Erasures look like improper modifications have been made. If an error occurs, draw a
single line through the improper part while allowing it to remain legible. VOID large
areas if needed.
There is less of a problem with erasures on the description, calculation, and sketch
pages.
Check your data for correctness before you leave the field.
Information found in the field notebook

Field notes are the only record that is left after the field survey party
departs the survey site. If these notes are not clear and complete, the
field survey was of little value. It is therefore necessary that your
field notes contain a complete record of all of the measurements
made during the survey and that they include, where necessary,
sketches and narrations to clarify the notes. The following guidelines
apply.
LETTERING.- All field notes should be lettered legibly. The lettering should be in freehand,
vertical or slanted Gothic style, as illustrated in basic drafting. A fairly hard pencil or a
mechanical lead holder with a 3H or 4H lead is recommended. Numerals and decimal points
should be legible and should permit only one interpretation.

FORMAT.- Notes must be kept in the regular field notebook and not on scraps of
paper for later transcription. Separate surveys should be recorded on separate pages
or in different books. The front cover of the field notebook should be marked with
the name of the project, its general location, the types of measurements recorded,
the designation of the survey unit, and other pertinent information.

The inside front cover should contain instructions for the return of the notebook, if
lost. The right-hand pages should be reserved as an index of the field notes, a list of
party personnel and their duties, a list of the instruments used, dates and reasons
for any instrument changes during the course of the survey, and a sketch and
description of the project.
Throughout the remainder of the notebook, the beginning and ending
of each day'swork should be clearly indicated. Where pertinent, the
weather, including temperature and wind velocities, should also be
recorded. To minimize recording errors, someone other than the
recorder should check and initial all data entered in the notebook.

RECORDING.- Field note recording takes three general forms:


tabulation, sketches, and descriptions. Two, or even all three, forms
may be combined, when necessary, to make a complete record.

In TABULATION, the numerical measurements are recorded in


columns according to a prescribed plan. Spaces are also reserved to
permit necessary computations.
SKETCHES add much to clarify field notes and should be used
liberally when applicable. They may be drawn to an approximate
scale, or important details may be exaggerated for clarity. A small
ruler or triangle is an aid in making sketches. Measurements should
be added directly on the sketch or keyed in some way to the tabular
data. An important requirement of a sketch is legibility. See that the
sketch is drawn clearly and large enough to be understandable.

Tabulation, with or without added sketches, can also be


supplemented with DESCRIPTIONS. The description may be only
one or two words to clarify the recorded measurements. It may also
be quite a narration if it is to be used at some future time, possibly
years later, to locate a survey monument.
ERASURES ARE NOT PERMITTED IN FIELD NOTEBOOKS.
Individual numbers or lines recorded incorrectly are to be lined
out and the correct values inserted. Pages that are to be rejected
are crossed out neatly and referenced to the substituted pages.
THIS PROCEDURE IS MANDATORY since the field notebook is
the book of record and is often used as legal evidence. Standard
abbreviations, signs, and symbols are used in field notebooks. If
there is any doubt as to their meaning, an explanation must be
given in the form of notes or legends.
Errors and mistakes
Statistically speaking, field observations and the resulting
measurement are never exact. Any observation can contain various
types of errors. Often some of these errors are known and can be
eliminated by applying appropriate corrections. However, even after
all known errors are eliminated, a measurement will still be in error
by some unknown value. To minimize the effect of errors, the
surveyor has to use utmost care in making the observations and
utilizing only calibrated equipment. However, a measurement is
never exact, regardless of the precision of the observations.
Although this manual contains many guidelines and standards, the
ultimate responsibility for providing surveys that meet desired
accuracies remains with the field personnel. To fulfill this
responsibility, the crew chief and his or her assistants must
understand errors, including but not limited to:
A. The various sources of errors.
B. The effect of possible errors upon each observation, each
measurement, and the entire survey.
C. Economical procedures which will eliminate or minimize
errors and result in surveys of the desired accuracies.
Blunders
Many textbooks on surveying refer to a blunder as a gross error. One
can easily make a case for a blunder to be considered an error.
However, a blunder is really an unpredictable gross mistake made by
the surveying team. It is not a hidden error that will go unnoticed, but
usually it becomes apparent that something is wrong with the
measurements. Examples of blunders are:
• Transposing two numbers (in field notes or computer input.)
• Misplacing decimal point.
• Incorrect reading (i.e. the foot value on a leveling rod.)
• Inadvertently altering set instrument constants in the middle of
a project.
• Placing sighting device or the instrument at a wrong point.
• Misunderstanding verbal instructions or reading
announcements (call out).
• Neglecting to level an instrument.
• Using the incorrect coordinates or benchmark values.
Blunders are caused by carelessness, misunderstanding, confusion, or
poor judgment. They are, for the most part, avoided by alertness,
common sense, and good judgment.
Blunders are detected and eliminated by using proper procedures,
such as:
• Checking each recorded and calculated value.
• Making independent and redundant measure check
observations and measurements.
• Making redundant measurements that allow closure
computation of sections of the entire survey.
Small blunders are more difficult to detect and correct especially if the
number of redundant measurements is too small. Therefore, surveys
must be carried out with sufficient redundancy to prevent a blunder
from going undetected. All blunders must be eliminated prior to
correcting and adjusting a survey for errors.
Definition of Error
Error is the difference, after blunders have been eliminated,
between a measured or calculated value of a quantity and the true
or established value of that quantity.
Types of errors
Types of Errors

Excluding gross errors, which were discussed above, there are two general types of
errors, systematic and random.

Systematic Errors

A systematic error is an error that will always have the same magnitude and the
same algebraic sign under the same conditions.
In most cases, systematic errors are caused by physical and natural conditions that
vary in accordance with known mathematical or physical laws. Systematic errors
are caused by:
• Equipment out of calibration
• Use of insufficiently accurate computation equations (too
few terms in a series.)
• Failure to apply necessary geometric reductions of
measurements.
• Failure to apply necessary reductions of measurements due
to weather related conditions.
• Personal biases of the observer.
• Use of incorrect units (feet instead of meters.)
A systematic error of a single kind is cumulative. However, several
kinds of systematic errors occurring in any one measurement could
compensate for each other. Some examples of systematic errors are:
• EDM that measures 99.95 feet while indicating a measurement
of 100.00 feet.
• Refraction in vertical angles.
• Observer’s tendency to sight on near or distant sights in a
slightly different manner.
Although some systematic errors are difficult to detect, the surveyor
must recognize the conditions that cause such errors. Once the
conditions are known, the effect of these errors can be minimized as
follows:
• Turning angles (with theodolite or total station) in direct and
reverse modes.
• Balancing (maintaining similar distances between level and rod)
foresights and backsights.
• Calibrating all surveying equipment.
• Calibrating EDM’s yearly at a baseline calibration site.
When systematic errors cannot be eliminated by procedural changes,
corrections are applied to the measurements. These corrections are
documented in the user manuals of the equipment or in surveying
textbooks.
Undeterminable systematic errors can also be modeled into the
adjustment computation, but surveyors should not rely on this. They
must eliminate all the known systematic errors prior to proceeding
with any adjustment of the survey data.
Random (Accidental) Errors

A random error (or accidental error) is an error produced by irregular


causes that are beyond the control of the observer. They do not follow
any established rule which can be used to compute the error for a
given condition or circumstance of the observation. The occurrence,
magnitude, and algebraic sign of a random error is truly random and
cannot be predicted. For a single measurement, it is the error
remaining in the measurement after all possible systematic and gross
errors are eliminated. An important characteristic of the random error
is that if we repeat the same measurement many times, the sum of all
these errors tends to be zero. This is yet another good reason to make
extra measurements beyond the required minimum.
An example of a random error is the personal reading error of any scale. An observer
estimates the final reading that can be either high or low in estimation since exactness
cannot occur.
Unlike systematic errors, corrections for random errors cannot be computed directly.
Random errors must be compensated by adjustments. The adjustment process
computes adjusted observations for the actual ones in such a way that the remaining
random errors are minimized. An example of such a process is computing an average
distance from several measurements. The average represents the adjusted value for
the distance for which the random error is minimized.
Random error obeys the laws of chance or the random theory of statistics. Therefore,
they are analyzed by applying the laws of probability. A complete discussion on the
mathematical laws of probability is beyond the scope of this manual. The reference
list at the beginning of this manual cites some excellent publications concerning the
topic.
Sources of Error
Errors in measurements stem from three sources: personal, instrumental, and natural.
Personal Errors
Personal errors are caused by the physical limitations of the human senses of sight and
touch. An example of a personal error is an error in the measured value of a horizontal
angle, caused by the inability to hold a range pole perfectly in the direction of the
plumb line. Personal errors can be either systematic or random. Personal systematic
errors are caused by an observer tendency to react the same way under the same
conditions. When there is no such tendency, the personal errors are considered to be
random.
Common sense, self-calibration (estimating personal errors by experiments and
experience) and attention to proper procedures generally keep such errors to a
minimum.
Instrument Error
Instrumental errors are caused by imperfections in the design, construction, and
adjustment of instruments and other equipment. Instruments can be calibrated to
overcome these imperfections. Examples of instrument error are:
• Imperfect linear or angular scales.
• Instrument axes are not perfectly parallel or perpendicular to each other.
• Misalignment of various part of the instrument.
• Optical distortions causing “what you see is not exactly what you are supposed
to see”.
Most instrumental errors are eliminated by using proper procedures, such as observing
angles in direct and reverse modes, balancing foresights and back sights and repeating
measurements. Since not all instrument errors can be eliminated by procedures,
instruments must be periodically checked, tested and adjusted (or calibrated.)
Instruments must be on a maintenance schedule to prevent inaccurate measurements.
Natural Errors
Natural errors result from natural physical conditions such as
atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, gravity, wind, and
atmospheric refraction. Examples of natural errors are:
• A steel tape whose length varies with changes in temperature.
• Sun spots activity and its impact on the ionosphere, hence on
GPS surveying.
Natural errors are mostly systematic and should be corrected or
modeled in the adjustment. Some natural errors such as the effect of
curvature and refraction can be eliminated by a procedure. The
leveling procedure to eliminate curvature and refraction corrections is
to average foresights and backsights.
Observation vs. Measurement
An observation is a single, unadjusted determination of a linear or angular value. A
single reading of an angle or a single reading of an EDM is an observation. An observed
value is a quantity that is obtained by instrumental measurement of the quantity. A
direct observation is an observation of the desired quantity while an indirect observation
is a quantity computed from direct observations. For example, rod readings in leveling
are direct observations and the elevation difference between two points that is computed
from these rod readings is an indirect observation.
A measurement is the entire process of obtaining a desired quantity. A measurement
entails performing a physical operation that usually consists of several more elementary
operations such as preparations (instrument calibration and setup), pointing, matching,
and comparing (reading). The result of these physical operations renders a numerical
value that is called a “measurement”.
Surveys should be considered as measurements not as observations. With the advent of
electronic readouts of linear or angular quantities everyone can make an observation. It
requires a surveyor to make a measurement.
Errors, Corrections, and Precautions
Direct measurement of angles and line direction by total station,
theodolite, compass, or transit is familiar to all surveyors. However,
many surveyors are not completely familiar with specific
procedures that will achieve specified results. This section discusses
errors involved in angular measurements and outlines procedures
that will enable the surveyor to achieve specified results.
As mentioned earlier, errors in a measurement stem from various
sources. Generally, angular measurements can be impacted by four
classes of errors. These four classes are: instrumental, personal,
natural, and miscellaneous errors. In the subsequent sections these
factors and how to minimize them are discussed in detail.
Instrumental Factors

A. Adjustment - Adjustments should be made at regular intervals


and particularly before work on any control survey is started. Such
adjustments should be made under the most ideal conditions
available, normally in the highway yard or shop. Adjustment should
be done in accordance with the user’s manual of the specific
instrument.
B. Servicing - Instruments requiring major adjustments should be
serviced at an authorized repair shop as specified by the Survey
Operations Manager.
C. Level Bubbles and Optical Plummet Normal measuring
procedures do not compensate for maladjustment of either the
plate bubble(s) or the optical plummet. These components must be
checked more frequently than others. On base and control traverse
projects, the optical plummet should be checked at least once each
day. The plate bubbles should be routinely checked on each setup.

D. Double Centering - Double centering compensates for lack of


adjustment of almost all components of the instrument and should be
standard practice for all angles measured (or laid off with a transit).
Double centering consists of two repetitions (one direct and one
reverse) with a transit.
E. Parallax - Parallax occurs when the focal point of the eyepiece does not
coincide with the plane of the cross hairs. The condition varies for each
observer because the focal length depends in part on the shape of the
observer’s eyeball. Parallax is also a major concern in the optical plummet.

1. When to Check Parallax should be checked by each


instrument person when beginning to operate a new instrument or one that
has been operated by someone else. The optical plummet should be checked
on every setup, particularly if the instrument height is significantly different
from the last setup.
2. How to Check Focus the telescope on some well-defined
distant object. Slowly move the head back and forth, about an inch from the
eyepiece, while watching the relationship of the object to the cross hairs. If the
object appears to move, parallax exists.
3. Eliminate Rotate the knurled eyepiece ring until apparent
object movement is no longer present. It may be necessary to refocus the cross
hairs.
Personal Factors

A. Setting up Instrument

1. Be sure the tripod is in good condition and all hardware is snugly fitted.
2. Push the tripod shoes firmly into the ground. Pressure should be parallel to
each leg. Keep your foot lightly on foot piece when adjusting leg lengths.
3. Place the legs in a position that will require a minimum of walking around
the setup. In windy conditions, additional stability can be achieved if one leg is set
downwind.
4. If the ground is soft or muddy, drive long 50 x 100 millimeter (2" x 4”)
wedges or iron pipes 19 millimeters x 1 meter (3/4" x 36")in the ground to support the
tripod legs. Use duck boards to support the instrument man.
5. On warm asphalt pavement set the tripod shoes on stakes
that have been nailed to the pavement. Shading tripod feet from
direct sun may also be helpful.
6. Be sure that the instrument is exactly over the point.
7. Check the optical plummet after the instrument is set up
and just before moving to another point. If the instrument has
moved, check the angle just measured.
8. Recheck the instrument level. The bubble should hold one
position when the instrument is smoothly turned through one
circle.
9. Protect the instrument from direct exposure to the sun. Use
a parasol if necessary.
B. Setting Sights
1. When tribrach mounted targets are used, take the same
precautions as when setting up an instrument. With this
equipment, "forced centering" between targets and theodolite (and
vice versa) will greatly decrease the effects of plumbing errors in
traverse closures. Forced centering is especially beneficial in short
course traverses. Forced centering is the traverse procedure
whereby backsight, instrument point and foresight are
"leapfrogged". Once a tribrach is set over a point, it must stay
mounted on the tripod over that point for all uses. The instrument
and sights are transferred from point to point without disturbing
the tribrach setup.
2. Before picking up the instrument or the target, check to
see that the tribrach or the sighting device has not moved.
3. When setting a pole sight, plumb it with a precision
equal to that required for the total survey. A twenty second
error results from a sight that is 0.1 meters (0.32 feet) out of
plumb at 1,000 meters (3280.8 feet) away.
4. If a sight is set near ground level, check the line of sight
for obstructions or for excessive heat waves. When excessive
heat waves are present, ground level sights are not advisable.
C. Pointing
1. Tangent screw use When moving sighting device onto a target, always make the last
turn of the tangent screw clockwise. Clockwise movement increases the tension on the loading
springs. A final turn counterclockwise releases tension and the spring can hang up, causing a
“backlash" error.
2. Cross Hair Use
a. Consistency - Sight each object with the same part of the cross hair, preferably near the
center of the field of view. This practice will minimize small residual adjustment errors.
b. Technique - The human eye can estimate the center of a wide object more accurately
than it can line up two objects. For this reason, different pointing techniques should be used
depending on the type and apparent size of the sight in the telescope. When pointing on narrow
sights, such as the center of a red and white target or distant range pole, straddle the sight with
the double cross hairs. When pointing on wide sights, such as a lath or range pole at close range,
split the sight with the single cross hair.
D. Split Bubble Image A frequent error in zenith angle measurement is failure to adjust the
split bubble image into coincidence before reading the angle. If coincidence is not made, the
scale is not indexed to the vertical and significant errors can result. Always set the bubble before
each reading.
E. Measuring Angles Measure angles as rapidly as comfortably
possible with a uniform rhythm. Take the first reading at an object,
rather than fidgeting with the tangent screw trying to improve the
pointing. Too much pointing time increases the probability of error
through instrument settlement or atmospheric changes. Speed should
not be cultivated at the expense of good results. Accuracy is more
important than speed.
F. Reading the Circles and the Micrometer
1. Call Outs - Carefully read and call out each reading to the
recorder. Call out the entire reading each time so any large blunders
will be caught. Have the recorder repeat the reading to the
instrument man after it is recorded.
2. When using the old style instruments, always check the ten-
minute interval. This is done by counting the number of graduations
between opposite, corresponding degree marks, after the circle has
been brought into coincidence.
G. Analyzing Observation Sheets Many recording errors and inconsistencies can
be caught by carefully analyzing observation sheets. The following most important
items should be checked in the field by the recorder and then rechecked in the office.
They are:
1. Spreads between the seconds of direct and reverse readings should be
consistent and in the same direction throughout the set.
2. Ten minute reading errors can frequently be located by examining a set of
positions. This is the reason that it is highly recommended that the circle be closed
(angle between foresight and backsight observed and recorded) for each observation. If
one observation disagrees with all others by ten minutes, it is safe to assume that a
reading or recording error was made.
3. When a direct and reverse observation of a position are in different minutes, be
sure the average second value is coupled with the correct minute’s value.
4. When checking the direction to a station and either the minutes or the seconds
value of the backsight mean observation are greater than corresponding values to
another station, be sure the subtraction is correct.
5. Using the entire set of averaged angles in the calculation will normally prevent
errors in either of the above instances.
G. Analyzing Observation Sheets Many recording errors and inconsistencies
can be caught by carefully analyzing observation sheets. The following most
important items should be checked in the field by the recorder and then rechecked
in the office. They are:
1. Spreads between the seconds of direct and reverse readings should be
consistent and in the same direction throughout the set.
2. Ten minute reading errors can frequently be located by examining a set of
positions. This is the reason that it is highly recommended that the circle be closed
(angle between foresight and backsight observed and recorded) for each
observation. If one observation disagrees with all others by ten minutes, it is safe to
assume that a reading or recording error was made.
3. When a direct and reverse observation of a position are in different minutes,
be sure the average second value is coupled with the correct minute’s value.
4. When checking the direction to a station and either the minutes or the
seconds value of the backsight mean observation are greater than corresponding
values to another station, be sure the subtraction is correct.
5. Using the entire set of averaged angles in the calculation will normally
prevent errors in either of the above instances.
E. Refraction - When light waves pass from a medium of one density into a medium of a
different density, the rays change in direction (bend). The change in direction is called refraction. Since
sight lines are light rays, they are refracted, or bent, by changes in the atmosphere, causing small errors
in angular measurement. Normally, the lateral refraction is insignificant in most surveys, but its effects
can be further minimized by understanding and avoiding situations that generate the largest refraction
of line of sight.
1. When the sun shines on a barren, dark surface, the surface warms relatively quickly. This
warms the air and, if calm, it produces a column of warm, light air rising from the surface.
2. Other situations include:
 Dark, freshly plowed fields lying between lighter colored areas of growing crops.
 Clear areas between heavy forests.
 Large bodies of warm water between land areas.
 Open valleys bordered by bluffs on either side. If a line must pass over a valley, set the
observation points as far back from the edges of the valley as possible.
 Air tends to layer parallel to the slopes of embankments or the base of foothills.
3. Minimizing Refraction - When refraction is probable in angles to be measured, or is suspected
in angles that have been measured, carefully examine the survey area and plan station locations to
avoid problem conditions listed above.
Make your observations when a breeze keeps the air stirred and prevents layering, or on cloudy days
or at night. Re observe lines under different atmospheric conditions, preferably when the wind is from
a different direction.
Miscellaneous Factors
A. Trigonometric Functions When trigonometric functions are
used in computations; the precision of the computations is affected
by the rates of change of the functions (the magnitude of the
differences between the functions for a given angular increment).
For example, to compute the impact of an angular error on the
precision of the ‘Sin’ function at a particular angle, use the
following equation:
precision_of_sin = sin(angle + error) - sin(angle)

sin(angle + error)
B. Example: The precision of a sin of an angle of 5° with an
error of 5” is 1:3610.
C. For a ‘Cosine’ and ‘Tangent’ replace the ‘sin’ in the above equation with
the respective trigonometric function. The following table shows the angles at
which trigonometric functions have the highest and lowest precision.

Sin Cos Tan


Highest precision 90 0° 45
Lowest precision 0° 90 0° or 90°
D. The precision of the angular measurements might have to be increased
to compensate for the large rates of change in the trigonometric functions.
E. This problem can be lessened by careful reconnaissance which:
1. Minimizes the use of such angles in the computations.
2. Provides sufficient checks that will ensure that desired accuracy is
maintained (for example, cross ties in traverse).
F. Relationship Between Angular and Linear Measurement

1. Consistency When a survey involves both angular and linear measurements,


maintain consistency (if practicable) between the precision of angular measurements and
that of the linear measurements. In other words, keep the offsets in line, caused by errors
in angular measurements, approximately equal to the errors in linear measurements. For
example, if distances are to be measured to a precision of 1/10,000, measure the angles to
the nearest 20 seconds. (A 20 second error will result in an error of 0.10 meters (0.32 feet)
offset in 1,000 meters (3280.8 feet).)
2. Angular errors and their corresponding linear errors per unit of distance can be
computed from:
Linear error = Tan(angular error) x (distance of the line)
Example: an angular error of 1” over a distance of 300meters (1000’) is 1.5mm (0.005’).
3. Inconsistency Often it is not practical to maintain the same precision in angular
and linear measurements. In this case the accuracy of each measurement should be
estimated and properly recorded. During the computation (or adjustment) of this data,
each measurement should be weighted in accordance to its precision. Computation
methods that do not accommodate for weighting measurements (such as the Compass
Rule) should be avoided in this instance.
G. Curvature and Vertical Refraction Zenith angles
measured for horizontal and vertical reduction of long lines
require curvature and refraction corrections. The manufacturer’s
specifications for most total stations indicate that the earth's
curvature and atmospheric refraction are internally computed
and the corrected horizontal and vertical distances displayed.
This correction can be eliminated (or balanced) by taking the
mean of two reciprocal measurements. The reciprocal procedure
means that a distance and a zenith angle are measured at point
A to point B and then from point B back to point A. At longer
distances (over 1000 meters (3280.8feet)), it is better to use this
averaging solution than the on board correction factors provided
within these total stations, even when they are in perfect
adjustment.
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy and precision are two different, yet equally important surveying concepts.
Accuracy is the degree of conformity of a given measurement with a standard value.
Precision is the extent to which a given set of measurements agree with their mean.
These concepts are illustrated in with a target shooting example.
First, all five shots are closely grouped indicating good precision due to the degree
of repeatability. However, the accuracy is poor because the shots are far from the center of
the target. Second, the five shots appear randomly scattered about the target
indicating neither accuracy nor precision. third, all five shots are closely spaced
about the target’s center indicating both precision and accuracy.
First illustration, there is Precision without accuracy.
Second Illustration, Neither precision nor accuracy.
Third illustration, there is good Precision and accuracy.

The goal of any survey should be to produce accurate and precise observations. Often
measurements with greater accuracy and precision requirements employ multiple
observations to minimize procedural errors.
Accuracy

Accuracy is the degree of conformity with a standard or accepted value.


Accuracy relates to the quality of the result. It is distinguished from precision
that relates to the quality of the operation used to obtain the result. The
standard used to determine accuracy can be:
A. An exact known value, such as the sum of the three interior
angles of a plane triangle is 180°.
B. A value of a conventional unit as defined by a physical
representation thereof, such as the international meter.
C. A survey or map value determined by superior methods and
deemed sufficiently near the ideal or true value to be held constant for the
control of dependent operations.

Although they are known to be not exact, higher order NGS control points are
deemed of sufficient accuracy to be the control for all other less exact surveys.
Precision

Precision is the degree of refinement in the performance of an


operation (procedures and instrumentation) or in the statement of a
result. It is a measure of the uniformity or reproducibility of the
result.
Accuracy Versus Precision
The accuracy of a field survey depends directly upon the precision
of the survey. Although through luck (compensating errors, for
example) surveys with high order closures might be attained
without high order precision, such accuracies are meaningless.
Therefore, all measurements and results should be quoted in terms
that are commensurate with the precision used to attain them.
Similarly, all surveys must be performed with a precision that
ensures that the desired accuracy is attained. However, surveys
performed to a precision that excessively exceeds the requirements
are costly and should be avoided.
Residual and probable error

residual error
the difference between a group of values observed and their
arithmetical mean

Probable Error is basically the correlation coefficient that is fully


responsible for the value of the coefficients and its accuracy.
On line Activities

Search for different types of surveying and surveying


instruments

Class recitation and online class inter action


Main Task

Provide yourself with a surveying field note book and start writing
down notes in surveying

Draw different surveying instruments in the field note book


Cut photos of different kinds of surveying and paste it in the field
note book
Reflection

Make a journal or the lessons learned


On your journal answer the following:
What were my learning of the lessons?
How does the lesson relate to my chosen profession?
How can I develop myself in relation to the lesson?
References:
Surveying: Theory and Practice by James M. Anderson and Edward M. Mikhail, (7th Edition),
2002
Kavanagh, Barry F., Surveying: Principles and Applications (9th Edition), 2014
Kavanagh, Barry F., Surveying with Construction Applications (8th Edition), 2015
Ghilani, C.D., and Wolf, P.R.,Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics (13th Edition),
2011
Schofield W. and M. Breach, Engineering Surveying, (6th Edition), 2007
La Putt, J.P., Elementary Surveying (3rd Edition) 2013 Reprint
Surveying and levelling 2nd edition by NN basak, Mc Graw Hill education (india) ISBN 978-93-3290-
153-7

https://theconstructor.org/surveying/traversing-surveying-types-methods/35684/
https://www.acsnsw.com.au/welcome/about-surveying/types-of-surveying/
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/residual%20error
https://www.toppr.com/guides/business-mathematics-and-statistics/correlation-and-regression/
probable-error-probable-limits/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probable_error

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