Uncertainty and Error

in Measurement
(IB text - Ch 11; AP text - section 1.4 pgs. 10-13 and A10-A13)

All measurements have some degree of

uncertainty. Therefore, we need to give some
indication of the reliability of measurements and
the uncertainties in the results calculated from
these measurements.
 Uncertainty in Measurement
We customarily report a measurement by
recording all the certain digits plus the first
uncertain digit.

Collectively, these are known as “significant figures”

We can determine without question
that the value is between 22 and 23 ml.
We then estimate the next digit as 2.
So the measurement should be
reported as 22.2 ml.
5. 7 1
 Precision in measuring
• The total number of digits and the number of
decimal points tell you how precise a tool was
used to make the measurement.

• Which is a more precise tool for measuring

small volumes, a graduated cylinder with mL
markings or a pipette with 10 marks per mL?
– Why?
– What are the advantages of each?
The pipette is a more precise tool than the graduated
cylinder because it has clear markings every tenth of a
mL (i.e. 9.01 mL ( 0.05 mL)), while the graduated
cylinder only has markings every mL (i.e. 9.0 mL ( 0.5
mL)).

Notice that the magnitude of the uncertainty

should be in agreement with the precision of the
measurement as written.
 Precision:

The degree of agreement among several

measurements of the same quantity.
Precision reflects the reproducibility of a
measurement.

(Precision does not imply accuracy)

 Accuracy

• The extent to which your measurement is

in fact close to the true, or accepted value.
If you do not know the true value, it may be
difficult to determine accuracy.
 Accuracy & Precision

Neither accurate nor precise Precise, not accurate

Accurate and precise

Accurate, not precise
Errors in Measurement
There are 2 different types of errors illustrated in the figures below:
Random errors and systematic errors

Neither accurate nor precise Precise, not accurate

Accurate and precise

Accurate, not precise
 Random Errors
(also called indeterminate errors pg. 12 of Zumdahl)

• Every time you make a measurement you

measure a slightly different quantity each time, as
a result of making measurement on imperfect
tools. The tendency of a measured value to
“jump around” from measurement to
measurement is the statistical error.
• Random errors have an equal probability of
being high or low as compared to the true value.
It occurs in estimating the value of the last digit
of a measurement.
 Large random errors
(#s jump around)

Neither accurate nor precise Precise, not accurate

Small Random Errors

Accurate and precise

Accurate, not precise
 How to calculate random errors
• For analog measurements, random errors can be
estimated to be half of the smallest division on the
scale

• For a digital reading such as an electronic balance,

random error of ± smallest division
– i.e. electronic balance that reads to the hundredths place
could lead to a value of 3.01 g (± 0.01 g)
 Systematic Errors
(determinate errors pg. 12, Zumdahl)

This is the uncertainty and error in measurement

caused by anything that is not statistical error.

This generally has to do with instrumental effects,

not taking things into account, and just doing stupid
things.

Systematic errors are always either high or low, not

both (occur in the same direction each time).
 Large Systematic Errors
(too high from true value)

Neither accurate nor precise Precise, not accurate

No Systematic
Errors

Accurate and precise

Accurate, not precise
 Examples of Systematic Errors
• Leaking gas syringes
• Calibration errors in pH meters
• Calibration of a balance
• Liquids evaporating
• Changes in external influences such as
temperature and atmospheric pressure affect
the measurement of gas volume, etc.
• etc…
 Reporting Measurements
• There are 3 parts to a measurement:
– The measurement
– The uncertainty (estimated magnitude of random error)
– The unit

– The absolute uncertainty is the size of the range of

values in which the "true value" of the
measurement probably lies.
 Example:
5.2 ± 0.5 cm The unit

The uncertainty
The measurement

An uncertainty of 0.5 cm for this measurement

means you are reasonably sure the actual length
is somewhere between 4.7 and 5.7.
 Practice
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
cm

What is the length of the blue bar?

 31.0 cm
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
cm

We know for sure that the measurement is 31 cm, and

therefore we estimate the last digit to be .0

The measurement of 31.0 cm has the measurement and

the unit, but it’s missing the 3rd part (THE
UNCERTAINTY)
 The Uncertainty…
31.0 cm (± 0.5 cm)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
cm

The bar appears to line up with the 31st mark and you know it’s
more than ½ way from the 30 mark and less than ½ way from the
32nd mark. So, you can reasonably be sure the actual length of the
bar is between 30.5 and 31.5 cm…
Remember!!! The uncertainty (measure of random error) is half of the smallest
division (hash marks) on an analog scale. The division on the scale goes to the
ones spot, so ½ of the ones spot is 0.5
 More Practice
3

What is the correct

2 measurement of the liquid
in this container?

mL
 REMEMBER!!!
3

Do you have the 3

2 requirements for
reporting a
measurement?
1 1) The measurement
2) The uncertainty
3) The unit
mL
 More Practice
3

We know for sure it is 2.7

2 mL

We estimate the last digit

1
to be 2.75 mL

mL
 More Practice
3

What’s the uncertainty?

2 The uncertainty (measure of
random error) is half of the
smallest division (hash marks)
on a scale.
1
The smallest division is in the
tenths spot (2.7 mL). Therefore,
½ of 0.1 = 0.05 as the
uncertainty.
mL
 More Practice
3

2.75 mL (± 0.05 mL)

2

mL
 Dealing with uncertainties
• Now you know the kinds of errors (random
and systematic) that can occur with
measurements and you should also have a
very good idea of how to estimate the
magnitude of the random error that occurs
when making measurements (the
uncertainty).
• What do we do with the uncertainties when
we add or subtract two measurements?
Or divide / multiply two measurements?

• REMEMBER SIG FIG RULES??!!!???

 Significant Figures

1. Non zero integers always count as significant.

2. Leading zeros never count. .0025 2 significant figures

3. Captive zeros always count. 90036 5 significant figures

4. Trailing zeros are significant 120 2 significant figures

only if the number contains a
decimal point. 120. 3 significant figures

.002000 4 significant figures

 Significant Figures: Rules

Any number based on calculations and

measurements must have the same number of
significant figures as the least precise
measurement that went into it.
This is a big deal!
Get it right!
 Significant Figures in Calcs.

1. Multiplication and Division:

Answer has the same number of significant figures as the least
precise measurement.

2.00 x 15 = 30.
2.015
2. Addition and Subtraction:
1.2
Answer has the same number of decimal places
+ 31.1231
as the least precise measurement.
34.3
• When you mathematically manipulate a
measurement you must take into
consideration the precision.

• If you add two measurements, the result

CANNOT BE MORE PRECISE!
 Just because your calculator has all the
numbers listed, doesn’t mean you should
report them in your answer. You must pay
attention to significant figures!
 For example:
• Mass of empty container = 2.3 g
• Mass of copper = 20.24 g

• What is the mass of the container with the

copper in it?
2.3 g + 20.24 g = 22.5 g NOT 22.54 g
 WHY 22.5g ???
• Since the mass of the empty container is
recorded to the tenths spot, it limits the
answer to only the tenths spot (because the
tenths spot is less precise than the hundreths
spot of the copper mass measurement)
Mass of empty container = 2.3 g
Mass of copper = 20.24 g
• Perhaps the actual value of the empty container is 2.2 g or
2.4 g based on a random error, then the mass of the
container could turn out to be 22.44 g or 22.64 g. As you can
see the difference in the tenths place is far more significant
than the hundredths place. So, the mass should be reported
to 22.5 g
 Propagation of Uncertainty in Calculations
-Uses uncertainty (or precision) of each measurement, arising
from limitations of measuring devices.
-The importance of estimating errors is due to the fact that
errors in data propagate through calculations to produce errors
in results.

Uncertainty propagation is required in IB labs and should

help you direct the evaluation part of your conclusion.
(DCP, CE)

*this simplified version should be all that is needed for IB

 3 rules for Propagating Uncertainties
1) Addition or subtraction of numbers with
uncertainty
2) Multiplication and division of numbers with
uncertainty
3) Multiplying or dividing by a pure number
1) Addition or subtraction of numbers with uncertainty

• When values are added or subtracted, the

absolute uncertainty (AU) of each value is
added.

– For analog measurements (things with markings and a physical

scale) the AU is typically half of the smallest division on the
apparatus used
• ie. 25.0 mL (±0.5 mL) if markings are every 1 ml; thus measurement can
be estimated to the nearest half of a mL)

– For digital measurements, the AU is typically ± smallest division

• ie. ±0.001 g for a milligram balance reading 3.426 g
 Example
• The change in temp of a mixture can be found by
subtracting the initial from the final temperature
(ΔT = Tf – Ti)
• So if the liquid started at 18.0°C (±0.5°C) and ended up at
25.0°C (±0.5°C), then the change in temperature is 7.0°C
(±1°C).
– To understand this, consider that the real original temp of the liquid must
lie between 17.5 °C and 18.5 °C and thus the change in temp can be as
high as 8 or as low as 6 …thus difference is 7.0°C (±1°C)
– Sig. figs. of uncertainty values carry through the calculations
independent from the sig. figs. of the measured values; thus, there will
always be only one sig. fig. listed for the absolute uncertainty.
 Practice Problems
1) 10.0 cm3 of acid is delivered from a 10cm3 pipette (
0.1 cm3), repeated 3 times. What is the total volume
delivered?

2) When using a burette ( 0.02 cm3), you subtract the

initial volume from the final volume.
Final volume = 38.46  0.02 cm3
Initial volume = 12.15  0.02 cm3
• What is the total volume delivered?
 Answers
1)
• 10.0  0.1 cm3
• 10.0 . 0.1 cm3
• 10.0  0.1 cm3
Total volume delivered = 30.0  0.3 cm3

2)
(38.46  0.02 cm3) – (12.15  0.02 cm3)
= 26.31  0.04 cm3
2) Multiplication and division of numbers
with uncertainty
• Percentage (relative) uncertainties are added.

– Percentage uncertainty is the ratio of the absolute

uncertainty of a measurement to the best estimate. It
expresses the relative size of the uncertainty of a
measurement (its precision).

• It is important to know about relative uncertainties

so that you can determine if the apparatus used to
generate the data is up to the task.

% uncertainty = (A.U. / recorded value) x 100

Temperature MUST BE in KELVIN when
converting to % uncertainty
K = C + 273
So the % uncertainty of a temperature recorded as
2.0°C (±0.5°C) is not 25%, but rather it is (0.5/275) x
100 = 0.2%
 EXAMPLE:

2.30g (±0.05) has an %U of

(0.05/2.30) x 100 = 2.2%
How does %U help w/ your CE?
• So now when we look at a calculation and see
percentage uncertainties of 11.5%, 0.1%, 0.05%
and 2.2% in it, hopefully you will realize that you
need to lower the 11.5% uncertainty if you want to
reduce the uncertainty of your answer.

• This should lead you to know exactly how to

improve the method significantly (and this should be
part of your conclusion & evaluation, CE)
 Example
An object has a mass of 9.01 g (±0.01 g) and
when it is placed in a graduated cylinder it causes
the level of water in the cylinder to rise from
23.0 cm3 (±0.5 cm3) to 28.0 cm3 (±0.5 cm3).

(Recall that cm3 = mL).

Calculate the density of the object.

 Density = mass / volume
First calculate the volume of the object:

volume object = final vol. water – initial vol. water

volume = [28.0 cm3 (±0.5 cm3)] – [23.0 cm3 (±0.5 cm3)]

volume = (28.0 cm3 - 23.0 cm3) ± (0.5 cm3 + 0.5 cm3)

Rule #1 (add AUs)

Volume = 5.0 cm3 (± 1 cm3)

 Density = mass / volume
Next, calculate density:
Rule #2
Density = [9.01 g (±0.01 g)] / [5.0 cm3 (± 1 cm3)] (add %U’s)

Density = [9.01 g (± x100)] / [5.0 cm3 (± x100)]

Density = [9.01 g (± 0.1%)] / [5.0 cm3 (± 20%)]

Density = [1.8 g/cm3 (± 0.1% + 20%)]

Density = 1.8 g/cm3 (± 20.1%) → write as 1.8 g/cm3 (± 20%)

Notice that the uncertainty of the balance (mass) did not contribute significantly
to the overall uncertainty of the calculated value; the graduated cylinder is
therefore responsible for most of the random error. Something to state in CE.
 Density = mass / volume
Finally, convert back to AU
always leave final answer in terms of absolute uncertainty

Density = 1.8 g/cm3 (± 20.1%) → write as 1.8 g/cm3 (± 20%)

Density = 1.8 g/cm3 (± .201x1.802 g/cm3)

Density = 1.8 g/cm3 (± 0.362 g/cm3)

→ write as 1.8 g/cm3 (± 0.4 g/cm3)

3) Multiplying or dividing by a pure number
• A “pure number” is a number without an estimated
uncertainty

• When doing this, multiply or divide the AU by the

pure number.
3) Multiplying or dividing by a pure number
Example: converting 3.62 g (±0.01 g) of Mg into moles

Rule #3: divide AU by pure #

• 0.149 mol (4E-4 mol)

% uncertainty should not change in this calculation

 Graphing
• Graphing is an excellent way to average a
range of values.

• When a range of values is plotted each point

should have error bars drawn on it.
Error Bars
 Error Bars
• The size of the bar is calculated from the uncertainty due to
random errors.
• Any line that is drawn should be within the error bars of each
point
• If it is not possible to draw a line of “best” fit within the error
bars then the systematic errors are greater than the random
errors.
Rate of Reaction
16

14

12
concentration (Molarity)

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time (seconds)