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Endocrine System For MLS Year 1

The document discusses the endocrine system and focuses on the pituitary gland. It provides learning objectives about glands, hormones, hormone action, endocrine glands, and related diseases. It defines the different types of glands and describes the location and functions of the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland secretes hormones that regulate other endocrine glands and control growth, metabolism, and reproduction. Some key hormones discussed include growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, and adrenocorticotropic hormone.

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SANDIE SORELLE
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
22 views54 pages

Endocrine System For MLS Year 1

The document discusses the endocrine system and focuses on the pituitary gland. It provides learning objectives about glands, hormones, hormone action, endocrine glands, and related diseases. It defines the different types of glands and describes the location and functions of the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland secretes hormones that regulate other endocrine glands and control growth, metabolism, and reproduction. Some key hormones discussed include growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, and adrenocorticotropic hormone.

Uploaded by

SANDIE SORELLE
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 54

APY 121

Human Anatomy and Physiology II

Instructor:

Mme Sandie Sorelle

[email protected]
Dr Sandie Sorelle 1
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Dr Sandie Sorelle 2
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• Learning objectives
• 1- Define a gland and differentiate between exocrine, endocrine and heteroendocrine glands

• 2- Define a hormone; Explain their characteristics, functions and the different types.

• 3- Understand hormone action plan.

• 4- List different endocrine glands and know their location in the human body

• 5- List hormones secreted by each endocrine gland and explain their functions

• 6- Understand diseases related to some hormone’s deficiency and overproduction in the body.

Dr Sandie Sorelle 3
Introduction
• The endocrine system, along with the nervous system, functions in the regulation of body
activities.

• The nervous system acts through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters to cause
muscle contraction and glandular secretion. The effect is of short duration, measured in
seconds, and localized.

• The endocrine system acts through chemical messengers called hormones that influence
growth, development, and metabolic activities. The action of the endocrine system is
measured in minutes, hours, or weeks and is more generalized than the action of the
nervous system.

Dr Sandie Sorelle 4
GLAND
 This is an organ that secretes particular chemical
substances for use in the body or for discharge
into the surroundings.

 There are three types of glands in our body:


-Endocrine galnds
-Exocrine glands
-Hetereocrine glands

Dr Sandie Sorelle 5
Exocrine glands
 Exocrine glands are glands that secrete their
products into ducts

 Example:
-Sweat gland
-Salivary glands
-Mammary glands
-Stomach
-Liver

Dr Sandie Sorelle 6
Endocrine glands
 Glands that secrete their
products (hormones) directly
into the blood rather than
through a duct.

 Example:
-Pituitary gland
-Pancreas
-Thyroid gland
-Adrenal gland
Dr Sandie Sorelle 7
Heteroendocrine glands

Dr Sandie Sorelle 8
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 It consists of glands and groups of capillaries
which facilitates diffusion of hormones to the
bloodstream

 They are commonly referred to as ductless


glands, because the hormones are secreted
directly into the bloodstream.

Dr Sandie Sorelle 9
Hormones
• Hormones are very powerful substances secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream that
affect the function of another cell or target cell.

• THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

 There are approximately 50 hormones produced by the human body

 The specific cells which are affected by a hormone are called target cells

 Hormones influence their target cells by binding to proteins or glycoproteins in the cell membrane
called receptors

 They may steroid (fat-soluble) or non-steroid (water-soluble)

 They are potent (needed in very small amount)

 They produce long lasting effects on the cells Dr


they
Sandietarget
Sorelle 10
Hormones

• THEIR FUNCTIONS
Regulate water and electrolyte balances (e.g. antidiurectic hormone, calcitonin, and
aldosterone).

Regulate metabolic processes (e.g. thyroid hormones)

Control the rate of chemical reactions (e.g. growth hormone).

Aid in the transport of substances across the cell membrane of target cells (e.g.
insulin and glucagon)

Play a vital role in reproduction, growth and development (e.g. estrogens ,


progesterone, and testosterone)
Dr Sandie Sorelle 11
Types of hormones
• Two types of hormones:

• a) Protein hormones: made of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.


- They are fat – insoluble; as a result cannot diffuse across the membrane of target cells

- Most hormones belong to this group except hormones secreted by the gonads (testis
and ovary) and the adrenal cortex.

• b) Steroid hormones: made of fatty acids using cholesterol as a functional group.


- They are fat-soluble; as a result can diffuse into target cells .

- Only hormones secreted by the gonads and adrenal cortex belong to this group .

Dr Sandie Sorelle 12
Hormone Action
• 1. Most hormones adhere to the following action plan :
a) endocrine gland synthesizes the hormone

b) Hormone diffuses into capillaries

c) Hormone is transported by blood or lymph toward target cells

d) Hormone diffuses out of capillaries at target tissue, and causes an effect in target
cells (key/lock mechanism)

Dr Sandie Sorelle 13
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland

Parathyroid gland

Adrenal

Pancreas

Thymus gland

Pineal gland

Dr Sandie Sorelle 14
Dr Sandie Sorelle 15
PITUITARY GLAND

Dr Sandie Sorelle 16
PITUITARY GLAND (hypophysis)
 The pituitary gland consists of:

o the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and


o the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis).

 The activity of the adenohypophysis is controlled by releasing hormones


from the hypothalamus. The neurohypophysis is controlled by nerve
stimulation.

Dr Sandie Sorelle 17
HORMONES OF THE PITUITARY GLAND
• Anterior lobe:
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Prolactin
• Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Posterior lobe:
• 1. Vasopressin (ADH)
• 2. oxytocin
Dr Sandie Sorelle 18
ANTERIOR PITUITARY
• The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that control a wide range of bodily
activities.

• The hypothalamus regulates the anterior pituitary by producing releasing


hormones that stimulate release of anterior pituitary gland hormones and
inhibiting hormones that suppress release of anterior pituitary gland hormones.

• The anterior pituitary has five principle types of cells which secrete seven major
hormones. Dr Sandie Sorelle 19
ANTERIOR PITUITARY
• Growth Hormone (GH) : which stimulates general body growth and regulates certain aspects of
metabolism.

• Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which controls secretions and other activities of the thyroid
gland.

• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), Together FSH and LH
stimulate the secretion of estrogen and progesterone and the maturation of oocytes in the ovaries
and the secretion of testosterone and sperm production in the testes.

• Prolactin (PRL), which initiates milk production in the mammary glands.

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids.

Dr Sandie Sorelle 20
1) Growth hormone
• This is the most abundant hormone synthesized by the anterior pituitary.
• It stimulates growth and division of most body cells but especially those in the bones and skeletal
muscles.
• Body growth in response to the secretion of GH is evident during childhood and adolescence, and
thereafter secretion of GH maintains the mass of bones and skeletal muscles.

• It also regulates aspects of metabolism in many organs, e.g. liver, intestines and pancreas.

• Its release is stimulated by growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) and suppressed by
growth hormone release inhibiting hormone (GHRIH), also known as somatostatin, both of
which are secreted by the hypothalamus.

• Secretion of GH is greater at night during sleep and is also stimulated by hypoglycaemia (low blood
sugar), exercise and anxiety. Secretion peaks in adolescence and then declines with age.

Dr Sandie Sorelle 21
Diseases related to GH
1. Gigantism: It is due to the overproduction of GH during adolescence (rare condition)
 It is characterized by:
-Tall stature
-Bilateral gynaecomastia
-Large hands and feet

2. Acromegaly: It is due to excessive secretion of GH during adulthood.


 It is characterized by:
-Enlarged hands and feet.
-Coarsened, enlarged facial features.
-Coarse, oily, thickened skin.
-Excessive sweating and body odor.
-Small outgrowths of skin tissue (skin tags)
-Fatigue and muscle weakness Dr Sandie Sorelle 22
Diseases related to GH

3. Dwarfism: It is due to deficiency of GH secretion

• It is characterized by:

- A very short trunk

- A short neck

- Shortened arms and legs

- Average-size hands and feet

- Broad, rounded chest

- Slightly flattened cheekbones. Dr Sandie Sorelle 23


2) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

• The release of this hormone is stimulated by thyrotrophin releasing hormone


(TRH) from the hypothalamus.

• It stimulates growth and activity of the thyroid gland, which secretes the hormones
thyroxine (T4) and tri- iodothyronine (T3).

• Release is lowest in the early evening and highest during the night.

• Hypersecretion causes Grave’s disease, and

• Hyposecretion causes cretinism in children and myxedema in adults

24
Dr Sandie Sorelle
3) Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH, corticotrophin)

• Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) from the


hypothalamus promotes the synthesis and release of ACTH by the
anterior pituitary.

• It is often produced in response to biological stress


• Its principal effects are increased production and secretion of
corticosteroids.
• This increases the concentration of cholesterol and steroids within
the adrenal cortex

• ACTH levels are highest at about 8 a.m. and fall to their lowest
about midnight.
• Hypersecretion causes Cushing’s disease, while hyposecretion is
rare
Dr Sandie Sorelle 25
Gonadotrophins
• Just before puberty two gonadotrophins (sex hormones) are secreted in gradually increasing amounts by the
anterior pituitary in response to luteinising hormone releasing hormone (LHRH), also known as
gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH).

• Rising levels of these hormones at puberty promotes mature functioning of the reproductive organs. In both
males and females the hormones responsible are: Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinising
hormone (LH).
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH):
- In female : It regulates the development of sex organs in female, development of immature ovarian
follicle from the ovary; it secretes oestrogen & progesterone during menstrual cycle.
- In male: initiation of spermatogenesis.

• Luteinising hormone (LH):


- In females: ovulation, maintaining of corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone.
- In males: testosterone secretion. 26
Dr Sandie Sorelle
Dr Sandie Sorelle 27
Prolactin
• It plays an important role in the development of mammary gland and in
milk production after childbirth.
• The blood level of prolactin is stimulated by prolactin releasing
hormone (PRH) released from the hypothalamus and it is lowered by
prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH, dopamine) and by an increased
blood level of prolactin.

• More prolactin is secreted at night


• Prolactin in blood suppresses ovulation

• Stimulating factors include: exercise, emotional stress, pregnancy and


breast feeding
• Inhibitory factors include: Dopamine (the main inhibitory factor)
• Hypersecretion can disrupt normal menstrual cycles in female and causes
Dr Sandie Sorelle 28
impotence in male; and hyposecretion causes poor milk production in
POSTERIOR PITUITARY
• The posterior pituitary works as a unit with the hypothalamus.

• Although the posterior pituitary does not synthesize its own

hormones, it does store and release two hormones:

- Oxytocin (OT) and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) produced

in the hypothalamus.

- OT controls uterine contractions during delivery and milk

ejection during breastfeeding.

- ADH causes retention of body water, controlling the body’s

water-balancing mechanism Dr Sandie Sorelle 29


Vasopressin (ADH)
• It has two primary functions:

- To retain water in blood (increasing the


permeability of renal to tubules to sodium and
water

- To constrict blood vessels


Dr Sandie Sorelle 30
Diseases related to ADH
• Diabetes insipidus:

- It is a condition characterized by excessive thirst and excretion of large


amounts of severely diluted urine.

• Polyuria:

- It is the excessive or abnormal large production of urine (˃ 3 L/day)

Dr Sandie Sorelle 31
Oxytocin (OT)

• It is synthesized in the hypothalamus

• It is stored in the posterior pituitary gland

• Oxytocin stimulates contraction of mammary gland to produce milk

• It stimulates contraction of the smooth muscles of the uterus during


delivery

Dr Sandie Sorelle 32
THYROID GLAND

Anatomy of the thyroid

• It is situated in the neck in front of the larynx and trachea

• It weighs about 25g

• It looks like butterfly in shape

• It consists of two lobes joined by a narrow isthmus

Dr Sandie Sorelle 33
THYROID HORMONES
• Iodine is essential for the formation of the thyroid hormones
• The thyroid gland selectively takes up iodine from the blood, a process called iodine trapping.
• The release of T3 and T4 into the blood is stimulated by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior
pituitary.
• Triiodothyronine (T3):
It affects almost every physiological process in the body i.e.
- Growth and development
- Metabolism
- Body temperature
- Heart rate
Deficiency in T3 may result in slower heart rate, weight gain, constipation
Excess T3 results in weight loss, diarrhea, faster heart rate.
• Thyroxine (T4):
It controls development and maturation
34
Excess thyroxine results in rapid development Dr Sandie Sorelle
THYROID HORMONES
• Secretion of TSH is stimulated by thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH) from
the hypothalamus and secretion of TRH is stimulated by exercise, stress,
malnutrition, low plasma glucose levels and sleep.

• Calcitonin:
It is a hormone secreted by the C cells of the thyroid gland
• It increases bone calcium and
• It decreases blood calcium levels

• Calcitonin effect opposes the effects of parathyroid hormone, whih act to increase
the blood calcium level.
Dr Sandie Sorelle 35
PARATHYROID GLAND
• In humans, there are four (04) parathyroid glands
• They are essential for life, as their removal can cause death from
asphyxia.

• These glands contains cells called chief cells which secrete


parathyroid hormone
• Its main function is to increase blood calciul level

Dr Sandie Sorelle 36
Disease related to parathyroid gland…
1. RICKETS:
• It is characterized mainly by bone deformities in young children
• It starts showing signs in about 6 months of life

Its characteristics:
- Deformed bones
- Thick wrist and ankles
- Retarded growth
2. OSTEOMALACIA
• It refers to a marked softening of the bones, most often
caused by severe vitamin D deficiency (from sunlight, cow
milk) and inadequate Calcium absroption
Dr Sandie Sorelle 37
PANCREAS

• It has both exocrine and endocrine part.

• Regions of the pancreas that perform its endocrine functions are known as

the Islets of Langerhans (1-2 million)

• Three (03) types of cells are found in the IOL

- A or alpha cells secrete Glucagon

- B or Beta cells secrete Insulin

- D or delta cells secrete Somatostatin


Dr Sandie Sorelle 38
PANCREATIC HORMONES
1. INSULIN

It promotes glucose utilization by the body cells and stimulates deposition of extra glucose in the blood as
glycogen in the liver.

Its main function is to lower high blood nutrient levels; not only glucose but also amino acids and fatty acids.

Actions:

• On carbohydrate metabolism
- Insulin increases the glucose entry into most cells of the body

- Insulin produces hypoglycemia

• On protein metabolism
- Insulin promotes amino acid uptake

- It decreases protein breakdown

- It promotes protein synthesis especially in muscles


39
Dr Sandie Sorelle
Diseases related to insulin
• DIABETES MELLITUS

 Glucose is vital to body’s health because it's an important source of energy for the cells that make up

muscles and tissues.

 It's also the brain's main source of fuel.

 Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level over a

prolonged period of time

The symptoms are;

- Frequent urination

- Increased thirst and

- Increased hunger
Dr Sandie Sorelle 40
PANCREATIC HORMONES
2. GLUCAGON

• It acts mostly on the liver and adipose tissues where it antagonizes


the actions of insulin

- It stimulates glycogenolysis in the liver and skeletal muscles

- Promotes gluconeogenesis

• Glucacon secretion is stimulated by low blood glucose levels and


exercise and inhibited by somatostatin and insulin
Dr Sandie Sorelle 41
Dr Sandie Sorelle 42
PANCREATIC HORMONES
• 3. SOMATOSTATIN:

This hormone is widely distributed throughout the body, especially in the


hypothalamus and pancreas.

It is also known as the Growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH)

ACTION

- It inhibits the secretion of both insulin and glucagon

- It also inhibits the secretion of growth hormone in the anterior pituitary


gland.

- It regulates the endocrine and nervous sytem functions.


Dr Sandie Sorelle 43
THE ADRENAL GLAND
• They are two (02) in numbers and lie superior to th kidneys enclosed within
the renal fascia.

• The adrenal glands are composed of the outer adrenal cortex and the
inner adrenal medulla

• This glands produces a total of 40 different hormones which are collectively


known as corticosteroids.

• The adrenal cortex is essential to life while the adrenal medulla is not.

• The complete loss of adrenocorticol hormones leads to death within a few


days to a week, due to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances.

Dr Sandie Sorelle 44
HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL GLAND
1. Adrenal cortex:
• It produces
- Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone)
- Mineralocorticoids (e.g. aldosterone)
- Sex hormones (androgens) (e.g. testosterone)
• They are collectively referred to a adrenocorticoids

2. Adrenal medulla:
• It produces:
- Epinephrine and
- Norepinephrine
Dr Sandie Sorelle 45
Hormones of the adrenal cortex
1. GLUCOCORTICOIDS
• Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid but small amounts of corticosterone and
cortisone are also produced.
• They are essential for life, regulating metabolism and responses to stress.
• Its secretion is stimulates by the ACTH from the anterior pituitary and by stress.
• They have anti-inflammatory actions
• They play a role in gluconeogenesis (formation of new sugar)
• They play a role in lipolysis (breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol
for energy production)

2. MINERALOCORTICOIDS
• Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid. It is involved in maintaining water and
electrolyte balance. Through a negative feedback system, that stimulates the
reabsorption of sodium by renal tubules and excretion of Potassium in the urine.

• Sodium reabsoprtion is also accompagnied by retention of water and therefore


Dr Sandie Sorelle 46
aldosterone is involved in the regulation of blood volume and blood pressure too.
Hormones of the adrenal cortex

3. ANDROGENS (SEX HORMONES)

• Sex hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are mainly androgens

(male sex hormones) although the amounts produced are insignificant

compared with those secreted by the testes and ovaries in late pberty

and adulthood.

Dr Sandie Sorelle 47
Disorders of the adrenal cortex
• Cushing’s syndrome:

It is due to hypersecretion of glucocorticoids.

Its characteristics features:

- Pain in face, neck and abdomen

- Pathological fractures

- Dimished protein synthesis

- Suppresion of growth

- Hypertension

- Menstrual disturbance
Dr Sandie Sorelle 48
- Peptic ulcers
Disorders of the adrenal cortex
• Addison’s disease
- It is due to undersecretion of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
- It could be caused by an autoimmune disease

Effects:
- Muscle weakness
- Tiredness
- Mental confusion
- Low blood volume
- Hypotension
Dr Sandie Sorelle 49
Hormones of the adrenal medulla
• The medulla is completely surrounded by the adrenal cortex.
• Its two hormones are secreted in response to stimulation by
sympathetic nerve, particularly during stressful situations
- Adrenaline (epinephrine, 80%)
- Noradrenaline (norepinephrine, 20%)

• They have similar effects The effects of excess adrenaline and noradrenaline

• Together, they potentiate by: are:


- Hypertension
- Increasing heart rate
- Hyperglycemia
- Increasing blood pressure - Raised metabolic rate
- Increasing metabolic rate - Nervousness

- Dilating the pupils - Headache 50


Dr Sandie Sorelle
PINEAL GLAND

• The pineal gland, also called pineal body, is a small cone-shaped


structure that extends posteriorly from the third ventricle of the
brain.

• pineal gland consists of portions of neurons, neuroglial cells, and


specialized secretory cells called pinealocytes.

• The pinealocytes synthesize the hormone melatonin and secrete it


directly into the cerebrospinal fluid, which takes it into the blood.
• It promotes sleepiness and regulates the body biological
clock
• A decrease in blood levels of melatonin promotes wakefulness. In
contrast, as light levels decline; such as during the evening—
melatonin production increases, boosting Drblood
Sandie Sorelle
levels and causing 51
GONADS
• The gonads, the primary reproductive organs, are the testes in the male and the
ovaries in the female. These organs are responsible for producing the sperm and
ova, but they also secrete hormones and are considered to be endocrine glands.
Testes
• The principal androgen is testosterone, which is secreted by the testes.
• Production of testosterone begins during fetal development, continues for a short
time after birth, nearly ceases during childhood, and then resumes at puberty.
• This steroid hormone is responsible for:
- The growth and development of the male reproductive structures
- Increased skeletal and muscular growth
- Enlargement of the larynx accompanied by voice changes
- Growth and distribution of body hair
- Increased male sexual drive
Dr Sandie Sorelle 52
GONADS
Ovaries
• Two groups of female sex hormones are produced in the ovaries, the
oestrogens and progesterone.
• These steroid hormones contribute to the development and function of the
female reproductive organs and sex characteristics.
• At the onset of puberty, oestrogen promotes:
- The development of the breasts
- Distribution of fat evidenced in the hips, legs, and breast
- Maturation of reproductive organs such as the uterus and vagina

Progesterone causes the uterine lining to thicken in preparation for pregnancy.

Together, progesterone and estrogens are responsible for the changes that
occur in the uterus during the female menstrual cycle.
Dr Sandie Sorelle 53
• Which other organs secrete hormones but are not part of the

endocrine system?

• They are referred to as organs with secondary endocrine

functions.

Dr Sandie Sorelle 54

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