Parts of the Sentence

By George Babineau
 Parts of the Sentence
The parts of the sentence are a set of terms for
describing how people construct sentences from
smaller pieces.
There is not a direct correspondence between the parts
of the sentence and the parts of speech.
 Parts of the Sentence
The subject of a sentence, for example, could be a
noun, a pronoun, or even an entire phrase or clause.

Like the parts of speech, however, the parts of the

sentence form part of the basic vocabulary of
grammar, and it is important that you take some time
to learn and understand them.
 Phrase
A phrase is a group of two or more grammatically
linked words without a subject and predicate.

A group of grammatically-linked words with a subject

and predicate is called a clause.

The group "teacher both students and" is not a phrase

because the words have no grammatical relationship to
one another.
 Phrase
Similarly, the group "bay the across" is not a phrase.

In both cases, the words need to be rearranged in order

to create phrases.
The group "both teachers and students" and the group
"across the bay" are both phrases.

You use phrase to add information to a sentence and

can perform the functions of a subject, an object, a
subject or object complement, a verb, an adjective, or
an adverb.
 Phrase
The highlighted words in each of the following sentences
make up a phrase:

She bought some spinach when she went to the corner

store.

Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.

They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night.

 Phrase
The highlighted words in each of the following sentences
make up a phrase:

In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs;

unfortunately, squirrels ate the bulbs and none bloomed.

Small children often insist that they can do it by

themselves.
 The function of Phrases
A phrase may function as a verb, noun, an adverb, or an
adjective.
 Verb Phrases

A verb phrase consists of a verb, its direct and/or indirect

objects, and any adverb, adverb phrases, or adverb clauses
which happen to modify it.

The predicate of a clause or sentence is always a verb phrase:

Corinne is trying to decide whether she wants to go to

medical school or to go to law school.
 Verb Phrases

He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for;
therefore, he decided to make something else.

After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more

independent.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.
 Noun Phrases
A noun phrase consists of a pronoun or noun with any
associated modifiers, including adjectives, adjective
phrases, adjective clauses, and other nouns in the
possessive case.

Like a noun, a noun phrase can act as a subject, as the

object of a verb or verbal, as a subject or object
complement, or as the object of a preposition, as in the
following examples:
 Noun Phrases
subject
Small children often insist that they can do it by
themselves.

object of a verb
To read quickly and accurately is Eugene's goal.

object of a preposition
The arctic explorers were caught unawares by the spring
breakup.
 Noun Phrases
subject complement
Frankenstein is the name of the scientist not the monster.

object complement
I consider Loki my favorite cat.
 Noun Phrases Using Verbals
Since some verbals in particular, the gerund and the
infinitive can act as nouns, these also can form the nucleus
of a noun phrase:
Ice fishing is a popular winter past-time.

However, since verbals are formed from verbs, they can also
take direct objects and can be modified by adverbs.
 Noun Phrases Using Verbals
A gerund phrase or infinitive phrase, then, is a noun phrase
consisting of a verbal, its modifiers (both adjectives and
adverbs), and its objects:

Running a marathon in the Summer is thirsty work.

I am planning to buy a house next month.

 Adjective Phrases

An adjective phrase is any phrase which modifies a noun or

pronoun. You often construct adjective phrases using
participles or prepositions together with their objects:

I was driven mad by the sound of my neighbor's constant

piano practicing.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of my neighbour's

constant piano practising" acts as an adjective modifying the
noun "sound."
 Adjective Phrases

My father-in-law locked his keys in the trunk of a

borrowed car.

Similarly in this sentence,

the prepositional phrase "of a borrowed car"
acts as an adjective modifying the noun "trunk."
 Adjective Phrases

We saw Peter dashing across the quadrangle.

Here the participle phrase "dashing across the quadrangle"

acts as an adjective describing the proper noun "Peter.“
 Adjective Phrases

We picked up the records broken in the scuffle.

In this sentence, the participle phrase "broken in the scuffle"

modifies the noun phrase "the records."
 Adverb Phrases
A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase,
functioning as an adverb, as in the following sentences.

She bought some spinach when she went to the corner

store.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "to the corner store"

acts as an adverb modifying the verb "went."

Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in the night sky"

functions as a adverb modifying the verb "flashed."
 Adverb Phrases
A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase,
functioning as an adverb, as in the following sentences.

In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs;

unfortunately, squirrels ate the bulbs and none bloomed.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in early October"

acts as an adverb modifying the entire sentence.
 Adverb Phrases
A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase,
functioning as an adverb, as in the following sentences.

We will meet at the library at 3:30 P.M.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "at 3:30 P.M." acts

as an adverb modifying the verb phrase "will meet."
 Adverb Phrases
A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase,
functioning as an adverb, as in the following sentences.

The dogs were capering about the clown's feet.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "about the clown's

feet" acts as an adverb modifying the verb phrase
"were capering."
 Clause
A clause is a collection of grammatically-related words
including a predicate and a subject
(though sometimes is the subject is implied).

A collection of grammatically-related words without a subject

or without a predicate is called a phrase.

Clauses are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence

consists of one or more clauses.
 Clause
cows eat grass.

This example is a clause, because it contains the subject

"cows" and the predicate "eat grass."
 Clause
phrase
cows eating grass

What about "cows eating grass"? This noun phrase could be a

subject, but it has no predicate attached to it:
the adjective phrase "eating grass" show which cows the writer
is referring to,
but there is nothing here to show why the writer is mentioning
cows in the first place.
 Clause
cows eating grass are visible from the highway

This is a complete clause again.

The subject "cows eating grass" and the predicate "are visible
from the highway" make up a complete thought.
 Clause
Run!

This single-word command is also a clause, even though it

does seem to have a subject.
With a direct command, it is not necessary to include the
subject, since it is obviously the person or people you are
talking to:
in other words, the clause really reads "[You] run!".

You should not usually use direct commands in your

essays, except in quotations.
 Clause
Run!

This single-word command is also a clause, even though it

does seem to have a subject.
With a direct command, it is not necessary to include the
subject, since it is obviously the person or people you are
talking to:
in other words, the clause really reads "[You] run!".

You should not usually use direct commands in your

essays, except in quotations.
 Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives
and Adverbs
If a clause can stand alone as a sentence, it is an
independent clause, as in the following example:

Independent
the Prime Minister is in Ottawa

Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in

this case, they are dependent clauses or subordinate
clauses. Consider the same clause with the subordinating
conjunction "because" added to the beginning:
 Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives
and Adverbs
Dependent
when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa

In this case, the clause could not be a sentence by itself, since

the conjunction "because" suggests that the clause is providing
an explanation for something else.
Since this dependent clause answers the question "when," just
like an adverb, it is called a dependent adverb clause (or
simply an adverb clause, since adverb clauses are always
dependent clauses).
Note how the clause can replace the adverb "tomorrow" in the
following examples:
 Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives
and Adverbs
adverb
The committee will meet tomorrow.

adverb clause
The committee will meet when the Prime Minister is in
Ottawa.

Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for
nouns and for adjectives.
 Noun Clauses
A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of
a noun in another clause or phrase.
Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of a
verb or the object of a preposition, answering the questions
"who(m)?" or "what?".
Consider the following examples:

noun
I know Latin.

In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direct

object of the verb "know."
 Noun Clauses
noun clause
I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native
language.

In this example, the entire clause "that Latin ..."

is the direct object.
 Noun Clauses
In fact, many noun clauses are indirect questions:
noun
Their destination is unknown.

noun clause
Where they are going is unknown.

The question "Where are they going?," with a slight change in

word order, becomes a noun clause when used as part of a
larger unit -- like the noun "destination," the clause is the
subject of the verb "is."
 Noun Clauses
Here are some more examples of noun clauses:
about what you bought at the mall
This noun clause is the object of the preposition "about," and
answers the question "about what?“

Whoever broke the vase will have to pay for it.

This noun clause is the subject of the verb "will have to pay,"
and answers the question "who will have to pay?“

The Toronto fans hope that the Blue Jays will win again.
This noun clause is the object of the verb "hope," and answers
the question "what do the fans hope?"
 Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the
place of an adjective in another clause or phrase.

Like an adjective, an adjective clause modifies a noun or

pronoun, answering questions like "which?" or "what kind
of?"

Consider the following examples:

 Adjective Clauses
Adjective
the red coat

Adjective clause
the coat which I bought yesterday

Like the word "red" in the first example, the dependent clause
"which I bought yesterday" in the second example modifies
the noun "coat."
Note that an adjective clause usually comes after what it
modifies, while an adjective usually comes before.
 Adjective Clauses
In formal writing, an adjective clause begins with the relative
pronouns "who(m)," "that," or "which."

In informal writing or speech, you may leave out the relative

pronoun when it is not the subject of the adjective clause, but
you should usually include the relative pronoun in formal,
academic writing:
 Adjective Clauses
informal
The books people read were mainly religious.

formal
The books that people read were mainly religious.

informal
Some firefighters never meet the people they save.

formal
Some firefighters never meet the people whom they save.
 Adjective Clauses
Here are some more examples of adjective clauses:

the meat which they ate was tainted

This clause modifies the noun "meat" and answers the
question "which meat?".

about the movie which made him cry

This clause modifies the noun "movie" and answers the
question "which movie?".
 Adjective Clauses
they are searching for the one who borrowed the book
The clause modifies the pronoun "one" and answers the
question "which one?".

Did I tell you about the author whom I met?

The clause modifies the noun "author" and answers the
question "which author?".
 Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause is a dependent clause which takes the
place of an adverb in another clause or phrase.

An adverb clause answers questions such as "when?",

"where?", "why?", "with what goal/result?", and "under
what conditions?".

Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb in the

following example:
 Adverb Clauses
adverb
The premier gave a speech here.

adverb clause
The premier gave a speech where the workers were
striking.

Usually, a subordinating conjunction like "because,"

"when(ever)," "where(ever)," "since," "after," and "so that,"
will introduce an adverb clause.
 Adverb Clauses
Note that a dependent adverb clause can never stand alone as a
complete sentence:

independent clause
they left the locker room

dependent adverb clause

after they left the locker room

The first example can easily stand alone as a sentence, but the
second cannot -- the reader will ask what happened "after they
left the locker room".
 Adverb Clauses
Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing
the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition:

cause
Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle because the uncle had
murdered Hamlet's father.

The adverb clause answers the question "why?".

 Adverb Clauses
Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing
the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition:

effect
Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle so that his father's
murder would be avenged.

The adverb clause answers the question "with what

goal/result?".
 Adverb Clauses
Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing
the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition:

time
After Hamlet's uncle Claudius married Hamlet's
mother, Hamlet wanted to kill him.

The adverb clause answers the question "when?". Note the

change in word order -- an adverb clause can often appear
either before or after the main part of the sentence.
 Adverb Clauses
Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing
the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition:

place
Where the whole Danish court was assembled, Hamlet
ordered a play in an attempt to prove his uncle's guilt.

The adverb clause answers the question "where?".

 Adverb Clauses
Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing
the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition:

condition
If the British co-operate, the Europeans may achieve
monetary union.

The adverb clause answers the question "under what

conditions?".
 Adverb Clauses
Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing
the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition:

condition
If the British co-operate, the Europeans may achieve
monetary union.

The adverb clause answers the question "under what

conditions?".
 Adverb Phrases
A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase,
functioning as an adverb, as in the following sentences.

Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in the night sky"
functions as a adverb modifying the verb "flashed."
 Subject and Predicate
Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject
and a predicate.
The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about,
while the predicate tells something about the subject.

In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in

braces ({}), while the subject is highlighted.
 Subject and Predicate
In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in
braces ({}), while the subject is highlighted.

Judy {runs}.

Judy and her dog {run on the beach every morning}.

To determine the subject of a sentence,

first isolate the verb and then make a question by placing
"who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.
 Subject and Predicate
The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings
and spilled popcorn.

The verb in the above sentence is "littered."

Who or what littered? The audience did.
"The audience" is the subject of the sentence.

The predicate (which always includes the verb) goes on to

relate something about the subject: what about the
audience?

It "littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled

popcorn."
 Imperative sentences
Sentences that give a command or an order differ from
conventional sentences in that their subject, which is
always "you," is understood rather than expressed.

Stand on your head.

("You" is understood before "stand.")

Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form

of the verb "to be."
In such sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals
that the true subject will soon follow.
 Imperative sentences
There were three stray kittens cowering under our
porch steps this morning.

If you ask who? or what? before the verb ("were cowering"),

the answer is "three stray kittens," the correct subject.

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate
Every subject is built around one (or more) noun or
pronoun that, when stripped of all the words that modify
it, is known as the simple subject.

Consider the following example:

A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger.

The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other
words of the subject "a" and "of pepperoni pizza“
modifying the noun.

"Piece" is the simple subject.

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate
Likewise, a predicate has at its center a simple
predicate, which is always the verb or verbs that link
up with the subject.

A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger.

In the example we just considered,

the simple predicate is "would satisfy“
in other words, the verb of the sentence.
 Compound Subject
A sentence may have a compound subject,
a simple subject consisting of more than one noun or
pronoun
as in these examples:

Team pennants, rock posters and family

photographs covered the boy's bedroom walls.
 Compound Predicate
Her uncle and she walked slowly through the
Inuit art gallery and admired the powerful
sculptures exhibited there.

The second sentence above features a compound

predicate, a predicate that includes more than one verb
pertaining to the same subject (in this case, "walked"
and "admired").
 Subject Quick Review
Question:
His terror of spiders kept him out of the dark basement.
 Subject Quick Review
Question:
His terror of spiders kept him out of the dark basement.
Answer:
"Terror" is the simple subject because it answers the question
"what?" before the verb "kept." "Of spiders" and "his" are
simply modifying the simple subject "terror."
 Subject Quick Review
Question:
There will be three concerts in the arts centre tonight.
 Subject Quick Review
Question:
There will be three concerts in the arts centre tonight.
Answer:
"Concerts" is the simple subject because it answers the question
"what?" before the verb "will be." Remember that "there" is
merely signalling that the true subject will follow.
 Subject Quick Review
Question:
Would you willingly exchange half your intelligence for one million
dollars?
 Subject Quick Review
Question:
Would you willingly exchange half your intelligence for one million
dollars?
Answer:
"You" is the simple subject because it answers the question "who?"
before the verb "would exchange."
 Subject Quick Review
Question:
Despite the storm's destructiveness, the ship, with its crew of
amateurs, might have survived in more experienced hands.
 Subject Quick Review
Question:
Despite the storm's destructiveness, the ship, with its crew of
amateurs, might have survived in more experienced hands.
Answer:
"Ship" is the simple subject because it answers the question "what?"
before the verb "might have survived." "With its crew of
amateurs" is modifying the simple subject "ship."
 Subject Quick Review
Question:
After the movie, Emma and her brother bought a birthday present for
their mother.
 Subject Quick Review
Question:
After the movie, Emma and her brother bought a birthday present for
their mother.
Answer:
"Emma, brother" is the simple subject because it answers the
question "who?" before the verb "bought." This sentence has a
compound subject.
 Predicate Quick Review
Question:
His terror of spiders kept him out of the dark basement.
 Predicate Quick Review
Question:
His terror of spiders kept him out of the dark basement.
Answer:
"Kept him out of the dark basement" is the predicate because it
contains the verb "kept" and it tells us something about the
subject, "his terror of spiders."
 Predicate Quick Review
Question:
There will be three concerts in the arts centre tonight.
 Predicate Quick Review
Question:
There will be three concerts in the arts centre tonight.
Answer:
"There will be...in the arts centre tonight" is the predicate because it
contains the verb "will be" and it tells us something about the
subject, "three concerts."
 Predicate Quick Review
Question:
Would you willingly exchange half your intelligence for one million
dollars?
 Predicate Quick Review
Question:
Would you willingly exchange half your intelligence for one million
dollars?
Answer:
"Would ... willingly exchange half your intelligence for one million
dollars" is the predicate because it contains the verb "would
exchange" and it tells us something about the subject, "you."
 Predicate Quick Review
Question:
Despite the storm's destructiveness, the ship, with its crew of
amateurs, might have survived in more experienced hands.
 Predicate Quick Review
Question:
Despite the storm's destructiveness, the ship, with its crew of
amateurs, might have survived in more experienced hands.
Answer:
"Despite the storm's destructiveness,...might have survived in more
experienced hands" is the predicate because it contains the verb
"might have survived" and it tells us something about the
subject, "the ship, with its crew of amateurs."
 Predicate Quick Review
Question:
After the movie, Emma and her brother bought a birthday present for
their mother.
 Predicate Quick Review
Question:
After the movie, Emma and her brother bought a birthday present for
their mother.
Answer:
"After the movie,...bought a birthday present for their mother" is the
predicate because it contains the verb "bought" and it tells us
something about the subject, "Emma and her brother."
Objects and Complements
A verb may be followed by an object that
completes the verb's meaning.
Two kinds of objects follow verbs: direct objects
and indirect objects.
To determine if a verb has a direct object, isolate
the verb and make it into a question by placing
"whom?" or "what?" after it.
The answer, if there is one, is the direct object:

The advertising executive drove a flashy red

Porsche.

Her secret admirer gave her a bouquet of flowers.

Objects and Complements
Her secret admirer gave her a bouquet of
flowers.

The sentence above also contains an indirect object.

An indirect object (which, like a direct object, is always
a noun or pronoun) is, in a sense, the recipient of the
direct object.
To determine if a verb has an indirect object, isolate the
verb and ask to whom?, to what?, for whom?, or for
what? after it.

The answer is the indirect object.

Objects and Complements
Not all verbs are followed by objects.

Consider the verbs in the following sentences:

The guest speaker rose from her chair to protest.

After work, Randy usually jogs around the canal.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Verbs that take objects are known as transitive
verbs.

Verbs not followed by objects are called

intransitive verbs.

Some verbs can be either transitive verbs or

intransitive verbs, depending on the context:

Direct Object
I hope the Senators win the next game.

No Direct Object
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
In addition to the transitive verb and the
intransitive verb, there is a third kind of verb
called a linking verb.

The word (or phrase) which follows a linking

verb is called not an object, but a subject
complement.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
The most common linking verb is "be."

Other linking verbs are "become," "seem,"

"appear," "feel," "grow," "look," "smell," "taste,"
and "sound," among others.

Note that some of these are sometimes linking

verbs, sometimes transitive verbs, or sometimes
intransitive verbs, depending on how you use
them:
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Linking verb with subject complement

He was a radiologist before he became a full-

time yoga instructor.

Linking verb with subject complement

Your homemade chili smells delicious.

Note that a subject complement can be either a noun

("radiologist", "instructor") or an adjective
("delicious").
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Transitive verb with direct object

I can't smell anything with this terrible cold.

Intransitive verb with no object

The interior of the beautiful new Buick smells strongly of

fish.
 Object Complements
An object complement is similar to a subject
complement, except that it modifies an object rather
than a subject.

Consider this example of a subject complement:

The driver seems tired.

In this case, as explained above, the adjective "tired"

modifies the noun "driver," which is the subject of the
sentence.
 Object Complements
Sometimes, however, the noun will be the object, as in the
following example:

I consider the driver tired.

In this case, the noun "driver" is the direct object of the verb
"consider," but the adjective "tired" is still acting as its
complement.
 Object Complements
In every case, you could reconstruct the last part of the
sentence into a sentence of its own using a subject
complement:

Paint it black.
“It is black,"

The judge ruled her out of order.

“She is out of order,"

I saw the Prime Minister sleeping.

“The Prime Minister is sleeping."
 Modifier
A modifier can be an adjective, an adverb, or a phrase or
clause acting as an adjective or adverb In every case, the
basic principle is the same: the modifier adds information
to another element in the sentence.
 Modifier
Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other
adverbs, and sometimes clauses and whole sentences.

Adjectives are words that modify nouns and pronouns.

Be careful not to use an adjective where you need an

adverb.

Consider the following sentences, for instance:

 Modifier
[WRONG]
Once the test was over, Sharon walked slow out of the
classroom.

[RIGHT]
Once the test was over, Sharon walked slowly out of the
classroom.

The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the

verb "walked."
 Modifier
[WRONG]
We tried real hard to get the muffin mixture perfect.

[RIGHT]
We tried really hard to get the muffin mixture perfect.

The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the

adjective "hard."

(Note that "really" is an informal substitute for "very", and you

should avoid in in formal essays.)
Using "good," "bad," "well," and
"badly."
You might also note the distinctions between
"good" and "bad" (which are adjectives) and
"well" and "badly" (which are adverbs):

Shelley plays the piano well and the drums badly.

The actor's performance was good even though he felt
bad that night.

"Well" is an adjective only when it refers to health or

condition:
She protested that she was well enough to start playing
sports again.
Using Adjectives with Linking Verbs

In the same vein, remember that adjectives modify nouns

and pronouns. Do not mistakenly use an adverb to modify
these parts of speech.

For example, after a linking verb you may be tempted to

use an adverb instead of an adjective.
Using Adjectives with Linking Verbs

You will recall that the linking verb is a special kind of

verb because it links its subject to a subject complement.

A subject complement can be either a noun (renaming the

subject) or a modifier (describing the subject).

When it is a modifier it must be an adjective because it

describes the subject (always a noun or pronoun).
Using Adjectives with Linking Verbs

It does not modify the linking verb itself and should

therefore not be an adverb:

[WRONG]
We felt badly about having caused the accident

[RIGHT]
We felt bad about having caused the accident.
 conjunctive adverb
The conjunctive adverb is a special kind of adverb that
often serves as a transition between two independent
clauses in a sentence.

Some common conjunctive adverbs are "therefore,"

"however," "moreover," "nevertheless," "consequently,"
and "furthermore."
 conjunctive adverb
When using a conjunctive adverb at the beginning of the
second independent clause, be sure to precede it with a
semicolon not a comma.

My roommate usually listens to rock music; however,

he also likes John Coltrane and several other jazz
musicians.
 Linking Verb
A linking verb connects a subject to a subject complement
which identifies or describes the subject, as in the
following sentences:

The play is Waiting for Godot.

In this sentence, the linking verb "is" links the noun phrase
"the play" to the identifying phrase "Waiting for Godot,"
which is called a subject complement.
 Linking Verb
Some of us thought that the play was very good.

In this sentence, the verb "was" links the subject complement

"very good" to subject "the play".

Others thought it became tedious after the first fifteen

minutes.

In this sentence, the linking verb "became" links the subject

"it" to the subject complement "tedious."
The phrase "after the first fifteen minutes" functions as a
adverb modifying the clause "it became tedious".
 Linking Verb
The cast appears disorganized and confused; perhaps
Beckett intended this.

Here "appears" is functioning as a linking verb that connects

the subject "the cats" to its subject complement "disorganised
and confused".

The play seems absurd to me.

The subject "the play" is joined to its subject complement

"absurd" by the linking verb "seems".
 Linking Verb
Linking verbs are either verbs of sensation ("feel," "look,"
"smell," "sound," "taste") or verbs of existence ("act,"
"appear," "be," "become," "continue," "grow," "prove,"
"remain," "seem," "sit," "strand," "turn").

Many linking verbs (with the significant exception of "be")

can also be used as transitive or intransitive verbs.
 Linking Verb
In the following pairs of sentences, the first sentence uses the
highlighted verb as a linking verb and the second uses the
same verb as either a transitive or an intransitive verb:

Linking
Griffin insists that the water in Winnipeg tastes terrible.
In this sentence, the adjective "terrible" is a subject
complement that describes a quality of the water.
Transitive
I tasted the soup before adding more salt.
Here the noun phrase "the soup" identifies what "I tasted."
"The soup" is the direct object of the verb "tasted.“
 Linking Verb
Linking
My neighbour's singing voice sounds very squeaky despite
several hours of daily practice.
In this example, the phrase "very squeaky" is a subject
complement that describes or identities the nature of the
"singing voice.“

Transitive
Upon the approach of the enemy troops, the gate-keeper
sounded his horn.
Here the verb "sounded" takes a direct object, the noun phrase
"his horn."
 Linking Verb
Linking
Cynthia feels queasy whenever she listens to banjo music.
In this sentence, the adjective "queasy" is a subject
complement that describes Cynthia.

Transitive
The customer carefully feels the fabric of the coat.
Here the noun phrase "the fabric of the coat" is the direct
object of the verb "feels" and identifies what the customer
feels.
 Comparative
You should use the comparative form of an adjective or
adverb to compare exactly two things.

You can form the comparative by adding the suffix "-er" to the
modifier (for some short words) or by using the word
"more" with the modifier:

Of the two designs, the architect is convinced that the city

will select the more experimental one.
(comparing two designs)
Now that it is March, the days are getting longer.
(longer now than before)
 Superlative
You should use the superlative form to compare three or more
things.
You can form the superlative by adding the suffix "-est" to the
modifier (for some short words) or by using the word
"most" with the modifier:
This is definitely the smartest, wittiest, most imaginative
comic strip I have ever seen.
(implying that I have seen more than two)

Note: if you are not certain, you should check a dictionary to

see which words take use "more" and "most" and which
words take the suffixes "-er" and "-est".
 Common Problems with the
Comparative and Superlative
There are certain modifiers which you cannot logically use in
the comparative and superlative forms.

Adjectives like "perfect" and "unique," for instance, express

absolute conditions and do not allow for degrees of
comparison.

Something cannot be more perfect than another thing: it is

either perfect or not perfect.
 Common Problems with the
Comparative and Superlative
You should also avoid using a double comparison -- that is,
using both a suffix and an adverb to indicate the
comparative or superlative:
[WRONG]
I am convinced that my poodle is more smarter than your
dachshund.

[RIGHT]
I am convinced that my poodle is smarter than your
dachshund.
 Common Problems with the
Comparative and Superlative
You should also avoid using a double comparison -- that is,
using both a suffix and an adverb to indicate the
comparative or superlative:

[WRONG]
Laurel and Hardy are the most funniest slapstick
comedians in film history.
[RIGHT]
I am convinced that my poodle is smarter than your
dachshund.
 Common Problems with the
Comparative and Superlative
Similarly, although the double negative -- the use of two
negative words together for a single negative idea -- is
common in speech and has a long history in the English
language, you should avoid using it in formal writing:
[WRONG]
We decided there wasn't no point in pursuing our research
further.

[RIGHT]
We decided there wasn't any point in pursuing our
research further. OR We decided there was no point in
pursuing our research further.
 Common Problems with the
Comparative and Superlative
Similarly, although the double negative -- the use of two
negative words together for a single negative idea -- is
common in speech and has a long history in the English
language, you should avoid using it in formal writing:

[WRONG]
I can't get no satisfaction.

[RIGHT]
I can't get any satisfaction. OR I can get no satisfaction.
 Common Problems with the
Comparative and Superlative
Double negatives involving "not" and "no" are fairly easy to
spot and fix.
However, some other adverbs -- for example, "hardly,"
"scarcely," "barely" -- imply the negative, and you should
not use them with another negative:
[WRONG]
Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he does
not have hardly any friends there.
[RIGHT]
Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he has
hardly any friends there. OR Even though he has lived
in Toronto for four years, he does not have many
friends there.
 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
You have a certain amount of freedom in deciding where to
place your modifiers in a sentence:

We rowed the boat vigorously.

We vigorously rowed the boat.

Vigorously we rowed the boat.

 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
You must be careful to avoid misplaced modifiers.
Modifiers that are positioned so that they appear to modify the
wrong thing.
In fact, you can improve your writing quite a bit by paying
attention to basic problems like misplaced modifiers and
dangling modifiers.
 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
Misplaced Words
In general, you should place single-word modifiers near the
word or words they modify, especially when a reader
might think that they modify something different in the
sentence.
 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
Consider the following sentence:
[WRONG]
After our conversation lessons, we could understand the
Spanish spoken by our visitors from Madrid easily.

Do we understand the Spanish easily, or do the visitors speak

it easily? This revision eliminates the confusion:

[RIGHT]
We could easily understand the Spanish spoken by our
visitors from Madrid.
 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
It is particularly important to be careful about where you put
limiting modifiers. These are words like "almost,"
"hardly," "nearly," "just," "only," "merely," and so on.

Many writers regularly misplace these modifiers. You can

accidentally change the entire meaning of a sentence if
you place these modifiers next to the wrong word:
Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
[WRONG]
Randy has nearly annoyed every professor he has had.
(he hasn't "nearly annoyed" them)

[RIGHT]
Randy has annoyed nearly every professor he has had.
Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

[WRONG]
We almost ate all of the Thanksgiving turkey.
(we didn't "almost eat" it)

[RIGHT]
We ate almost all of the Thanksgiving turkey.
 Misplaced Phrases and Clauses
It is important that you place the modifying phrase or clause as
close as possible to the word or words it modifies:

[WRONG]
By accident, he poked the little girl with his finger in
the eye.

[RIGHT]
By accident, he poked the little girl in the eye with his
finger.
 Misplaced Phrases and Clauses
It is important that you place the modifying phrase or clause as
close as possible to the word or words it modifies:

[WRONG]
I heard that my roommate intended to throw a surprise
party for me while I was outside her bedroom
window.

[RIGHT]
While I was outside her bedroom window, I heard
that my roommate intended to throw a surprise party
for me.
 Misplaced Phrases and Clauses
It is important that you place the modifying phrase or clause as
close as possible to the word or words it modifies:

[WRONG]
After the wedding, Ian told us at his stag party that he
would start behaving like a responsible adult.

[RIGHT]
Ian told us at his stag party that he would start behaving
like a responsible adult after the wedding.
 Squinting Modifiers
A squinting modifier is an ambiguously placed modifier that
can modify either the word before it or the word after it.
In other words, it is "squinting" in both directions at the
same time:
[WRONG]
Defining your terms clearly strengthens your argument.
(does defining "clearly strengthen" or does "defining
clearly" strengthen?)
[RIGHT]
Defining your terms will clearly strengthen your argument.
OR A clear definition of your terms strengthens your
argument.
 Split Infinitives
In general, you should avoid placing long, disruptive
modifiers between the "to" and the verb of an infinitive.
However, you must use your judgment when it comes to
single-word modifiers. Sometimes a sentence becomes
awkward if a single-word modifier is placed anywhere but
between the elements of the infinitive:
[WRONG]
The marketing team voted to, before they launched the
new software, run an anticipatory ad campaign.
(disruptive -- the infinitive should not be split)
[RIGHT]
The marketing team voted to run an anticipatory ad
campaign before they launched the new software.
 Dangling Modifiers

The dangling modifier, a persistent and frequent grammatical

problem in writing, is often (though not always) located at
the beginning of a sentence.

A dangling modifier is usually a phrase or an elliptical clause

-- a dependent clause whose subject and verb are implied
rather than expressed -- that functions as an adjective but
does not modify any specific word in the sentence, or
(worse) modifies the wrong word.
 Dangling Modifiers

Consider the following example:

Raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the
sea.

The introductory phrase in the above sentence looks as if it is

meant to modify a person or persons, but no one is
mentioned in the sentence.
Such introductory adjective phrases, because of their position,
automatically modify the first noun or pronoun that
follows the phrase -- in this case, "it." The connection in
this case is illogical because "it" was not raised in Nova
Scotia.
 Dangling Modifiers

You could revise the sentence in a number of ways:

For a person raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss

the smell of the sea.
(the phrase no longer functions as an adjective)

Raised in Nova Scotia, I often miss the smell of the sea.

(the phrase functions as an adjective but now automatically
modifies "I," a logical connection)
 Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier can also appear when you place an

elliptical clause improperly:
Although nearly finished, we left the play early because
we were worried about our sick cat.

The way this sentence is structured, the clause "Although

nearly finished" illogically modifies "we," the pronoun
directly following the clause.
An easy way to rectify the problem is to re-insert the subject
and verb that are understood in the elliptical clause:
Although the play was nearly finished, we left early
because we were worried about our sick cat.
 Split Infinitives
The infinitive form of the verb consists of the word "to"
followed by the base form of the verb: "to be," "to serve,"
"to chop," etc.
Inserting a word or words between the "to" and the verb of an
infinitive creates what is known as a split infinitive.
Prescriptive grammarians, who knew Latin grammar better
than English, once decreed that a split infinitive was an
error, but now it is growing increasingly acceptable even
in formal writing.
Nevertheless, some careful writers still prefer to avoid
splitting infinitives altogether.
Final Review
 Final Review
The old house on the hill gave Leonora chills and conjured up
images of ghosts and monsters and other unknown beings.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement
 Final Review
The old house on the hill gave Leonora chills and conjured up
images of ghosts and monsters and other unknown beings.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement
 Final Review
Next to the china cabinet, Mrs. Wilkes placed a polished side
table and an antique jug.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement
 Final Review
Next to the china cabinet, Mrs. Wilkes placed a polished side
table and an antique jug.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement

Explanation:
"Table" is a direct object because it answers the question "what?"
after the verb "placed."
 Final Review
Despite winning the lottery last week, my cousin still seems
unhappy.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement
 Final Review
Despite winning the lottery last week, my cousin still seems
unhappy.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement

Explanation:
"Unhappy" is a subject complement because it follows the
linking verb "seems" and complements the subject, "my
cousin."
 Final Review
They gave the university a large endowment for the
scholarship fund.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement
 Final Review
They gave the university a large endowment for the
scholarship fund.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement

Explanation:
"University" is an indirect object because it answers the question "to
what?" after the verb "gave." "A large endowment" is the direct
object -- the thing that was given -- and the university is the
recipient of the direct object.
 Final Review
Some experts believe it is easy to overstate the role that genes
and heredity play in determining a person's predisposition
to alcoholism.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement
 Final Review
Some experts believe it is easy to overstate the role that genes
and heredity play in determining a person's predisposition
to alcoholism.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement

Explanation:
"Believe" is a verb. It is connected to the subject "some experts."
 Final Review
After the luncheon buffet, she grew drowsy and decided to
take a nap.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement
 Final Review
After the luncheon buffet, she grew drowsy and decided to
take a nap.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement

Explanation:
"Drowsy" is a subject complement because it follows the linking
verb "grew" and complements the subject, "she."
 Final Review
I don't know how you can understand anything that professor
says.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement
 Final Review
I don't know how you can understand anything that professor
says.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement

Explanation:
"Anything" is a direct object because it answers the question "what?"
after the verb "can understand."
 Final Review
There were no credits after the movie.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement
 Final Review
There were no credits after the movie.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement

Explanation:
"Credits" is a simple subject because it answers the question "what?"
before the verb "were." Remember that "there" is merely
signalling that the true subject will follow.
 Final Review
His deaf aunt will be going to the symphony next week.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement
 Final Review
His deaf aunt will be going to the symphony next week.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement

Explanation:
"Going" is a verb (technically, it is actually a verbal). It is connected
to the subject "his deaf aunt" and is supported by the auxiliary
verbs "will be."
 Final Review
The company has been mailing George CD catalogues ever
since he bought his stereo.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement
 Final Review
The company has been mailing George CD catalogues ever
since he bought his stereo.
Simple Subject
Verb
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement

Explanation:
"George" is an indirect object because it answers the question "to
whom?" after the verb "has been mailing." "CD catalogues" is
the direct object -- the thing that has been mailed -- and George
is the recipient of the direct object.