Module 2

Introduction to Research
Dr. Cely S. Binoya
Professor
Module Objectives:
At the end of the module, the students must be able
to:
 Define research and related terms
 Explain the importance of research in modern life.
 Explain the need to observe ethical
considerations in conducting research.
 Be able to classify the types of researches
according to purpose, time and statistical use.
 Characteristics of a good research.
Parts of a research
Topics Covered
Definition of important concepts and terms
Importance of research in modern life
Research as a scientific, systematic and empirical
process
Ethical considerations in conducting research.
Types of researches according to purpose, and
methods use.
Describe the characteristics of a good research.
Unlocking Difficulties
 View Introductory Video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g9Z_vkgPxMg -
What is research?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v50ct9xJVKE
What is research?
Groupings
Group 1 –
Group 2 –
Group 3 –
Group4 –
Group 5 –
Research Topics by Group
Group 1 –
Group 2 –
Group 3 -
Group 4 –
 Group 5 –
Important concepts and terms:
Difference between Common Sense and Science
Common sense
uses concepts / variables in loose manner
Does not pursue testing of relationships between and
among variables
Science
Uses concepts / variables in the strictest sense and rigor
of the research process
Pursue empirical testing of relationships between and
among variables
Four Methods of Knowing
Method of tenacity – knowledge that is
passed down from generation to generation
Method of Authority – passed down thru
laws, memos, circulars, etc.
A priori – knowledge is accepted because it
is self evident
Scientific method – knowledge is generated
through research
What is Research?
Research -
Diligent
 Systematic
Careful and
Thorough INVESTIGATION of a research problem

It includes identifying a problem, designing a strategy to

provide answers to the problem, gathering factual data /
information, analyzing and interpreting the data and
making generalization for the advancement of
knowledge
Importance of research in modern life
It discovers solutions to existing problems
and improves the quality of life.
It gathers necessary information and
promotes critical thinking.
It generates new knowledge.
It leads to new technologies
It explores our history
It informs our action (policy studies)
Research as a Scientific, Systematic and Empirical Process
The scientific method follows a fairly rigorous structure.
It is empirical and appeals to evidence. It uses a working
hypothesis that can be tested using observations and
experiments.
It relies upon data, both quantitative and qualitative
The scientific method is intellectual and visionary
It uses experiments to test predictions
It is systematic and methodical. Any results must be
retested and repeated until a solid body of evidence is
built up.
Features of a True Research
1.Universality – the methodology could be carried
out by any competent person other than yourself.

2. Replication –Should be repeatable

3. Control –Parameters are important

4. Measured –data could be measured, evaluated

or quantified
Why Consider Ethics in Conducting
Research?
Ethics are the norms or standards for conduct that
distinguish between right and wrong and helps
determine acceptable and unacceptable behaviors.
Why should we consider ethics in research?
prevent fabrication or falsifying of data to promote the
pursuit of knowledge and truth
it encourages an environment of trust, accountability,
and mutual respect among researchers
Researchers must also adhere to ethical standards in
order for the public to support and believe in the
research
Ethical Considerations in Research
Use of human subjects and ensuring observance of
their rights and safety, voluntary participation and
informed consent, and protecting confidentiality and
anonymity of the subjects
Consider also animal welfare and compliance with the
law,
Conflicts of interest
Honesty, objectivity, respect for intellectual property,
and social responsibility
TYPES OF RESEARCH

1. Basic and Applied Research

Basic Research

Undertaking experimental and theoretical work

Carried out to acquire new knowledge without looking

for long-term benefits other than the advancement of
knowledge (generating knowledge for knowledge
sake)
Applied research…

to acquire new knowledge with a specific application in

view

to determine possible uses for the findings of basic

research

to determine new ways of achieving some specific and

predetermined objectives
2. Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

consists of studies in which the data

concerned can be analyzed in terms of
NUMBERS
Qualitative Research

describes events, phenomena,

processes, conditions, persons, and
other aspects scientifically without
the use of numerical data.
 Developmental research
It refers to systematic work drawing on existing
knowledge gained from research and / or practical
experience that is directed to producing new
materials , products and devices, to installing new
processes, systems and services, and to improving
substantially those already produced or installed.
 Historical Research
 Refers to the critical investigation of events, developments, and
experiences of the past; the careful weighing of evidences of the
validity of sources of information on the past, and the
interpretation of the weighted evidence. (Kerlinger, 1972)
 The historical investigator collects data, evaluates the data for
validity and interprets the data.
 The data are not gathered thru the administration of an instrument
but thru the collection of or original documents or interviewing
those who observed or witnessed the event.
 Primary data sources: documents, relics, oral testimony
 Secondary data sources: report of the person who relates the
testimony, documentary analysis from newspapers, clippings,
picture, etc.
  The most powerful method in investigating
relationships between variables
 Usually conducted in laboratory
 2 basic conditions required:
 At least two conditions or methods are compared to
assess the effects of the condition or treatment
Experimental (independent variable). Experimental and Control

Research groups
 The independent variable is directly manipulated by
the researcher
 Advantages of Experimental Research:
 Establishing causality – best method in establishing
causal link
 Control – it offers ultimate control, less chance of
error caused by extraneous factors
 Longitudinal analysis – studies change over time
 Disadvantages: Artificial environment, experimenter
effect, lack of control of IV in a natural setting and
sample size is usually small
Applied research / Action Research
It refers to researches which are
directed towards practical
application of knowledge
It aims at finding solutions/
explanations for certain problems
that stem from a situation.
It may support, modify, revise of
provide a new theory.
It determines possible uses for the
findings of basic research
It determines new ways of achieving
some specific and predetermined
objectives
 The goal of applied research
 To examine the effectiveness and usefulness of
particular educational practices.
To determine the applicability of educational theory and
principles by testing hypotheses within specific settings.
To demonstrate the usefulness of theories in practice

Applied research studies often take many years to

stimulate change, even though the findings are
disseminated to large groups of individuals through
applied research journals.
 Ex-Post Facto Research
 A systematic empirical inquiry where the researcher has no direct control of
the independent variables because their manifestations have already occurred
or because they are inherently not manipulable.
 Inferences about relations among variables are made without direct
intervention to the independent and dependent variables since the study is
done after the fact. We look at results and events after they have occurred.
 Limitations of the design
 The independent variables cannot be manipulated since the events have
already occurred
 Subjects cannot be randomly assigned to treatment groups
 Causes are often multiple and complex, not single and simple
 Examples: Effect of organizational climate on students’ behavior; Effects of
GPA on earnings of graduates
  It judges the worth, merit or value of an existing
program

Evaluation  It focus primarily on results of program

effectiveness and helps in making decisions for
Research improving, maintaining, rejecting or replacing
the focus of evaluation to make it more effective
and efficient.
 It attempts to answer the ff. questions:
 What are the goals and objectives of the program being evaluated?
 What are the intended results of the program?
 Are the intended results achieved?
 Are there other unintended results/ were they positive or negative?
 Are the results sufficient to warrant continuation of the program?

 Two kind of evaluation: Formative and

Summative Evaluation
Formative and Summative Evaluation
Formative Evaluation – carried out at
Summative Evaluation – conducted
the time when the program is being
after a program is implemented.
developed;
• it is an ongoing process. • The purpose is to determine the worth
• The purpose is to keep improving the of the program
program by modifying it on the basis of • It helps the user in comparing the worth
collected data of the program with other competing
• Done by those involved in program programs, and finally to take decision to
implementation accept or reject similar program
• It focuses on the generality of the
program to come out with decision on
what to do with the program
Case Study
An in-depth investigation of a single person,
an institution, or a group such as students, It has the following characteristics:
teachers, or administrators.
• It tries to understand the “what” and the • It is an intensive study of a social unit
why” of the situation (Best and Khan, 1998) • Observation is the primary technique of
• It probes deeply and analyses interactions gathering information
between the factors that explain present • It examines a small number of units, but
status , e.g. change or growth. It is a the number of variables studied is large
longitudinal approach showing (Columbo, 1984)
development over a period of time. • It may be superior to experimental or
survey study when data about non-verbal
behavior is being collected
Content Analysis
 a method which analyses the content / “what is said” by a
document
 Documents can include records, reports, newspapers,
letters, diaries, literatures, compositions, court decisions,
pictures, files, cartoons, etc.
 It is an objective, systematic, and quantitative description
of the manifest content of a text.
 Current documents and issues are the focus, and the
analysis is concerned with the explanation of the status of
some phenomenon at a particular time or its development
over a period of time.
 Its purpose is adding knowledge to fields of inquiry, and in
explaining certain social event.
 It generates inferences say on the state of the art or
researches in some disciplines; or analysis of legal
documents in relation to education.
 Ethnographic Research
Also known as cultural anthropology, ER is a
method of field study observation that became
popular in the 19th century.
 The emphasis is on documenting or portraying the everyday experiences of
individuals by observing and interviewing them, and continual, ongoing
participant observation of a situation.
 It consist of participant observation, conversation, and use of informants to
study the cultural characteristics of a particular society, group, institution,
setting or situation (Best and Kahn, 1998)
 It involves establishing rapport in the community, learning to act so that people
go about their business as usual when you show up, and removing yourself from
cultural immersion so you can intellectualize what you have learned, put it into
perspective, and write about it convincingly.
 Best applied to Psychology and Education, Anthropology and Sociology
 Limitations: highly dependent on researcher’s observations and bias; no way to
check validity of researcher’s conclusions.
 Market /Strategic research - is the process of determining the
viability of a new service or product
through research conducted directly with potential
customers. Market research allows a company to discover the

OTHER
target market and get opinions and other feedback from
consumers about their interest in the product or service.
Feasibility analysis - is used to determine the viability of an idea,

TYPES OF such as ensuring a project is legally and technically feasible as

well as economically justifiable. It tells us whether a project is
worth the investment.

RESEARCH Ex- Ante Analysis - looks at future events based on possible

predictions.
Narrative Research - a term that subsumes a group of
approaches that in turn rely on the written or spoken words
or visual representation of individuals. These approaches
typically focus on the lives of individuals as told through
their own stories.
Phenomenological Research-a form of
qualitative research that focuses on the study of an
individual's lived experiences within the world. Although it
is a powerful approach for inquiry, the nature of this
methodology is often intimidating
Qualities of Good Research
It has clearly defined purpose and use of common
concepts
Research procedure is described in sufficient detail for
possible replication by other researchers for further
advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
The procedural design of the research is carefully
planned to yield objective results
The researcher reports with complete frankness, flaws
in procedural design and estimate their effects upon
the findings.
Qualities of Good Research
The analysis of data are sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of analysis used are
appropriate.
The validity and reliability of the data are checked
carefully.
Conclusions are confined to those justified by the data of
the research and limited to those for which the data
provide an adequate basis.
Greater confidence in research is warranted if the
researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in
research and is a person of integrity.
So, a good research is
 Systematic - It is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified
sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. It rejects the use of
guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.

 Logical - research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical
process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision
making.

 Empirical - research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real

situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity
to research results.

 Replicable – it allows research to be verified by replicating the study and

thereby building a sound basis for making generalization.
Are you now ready to become a
researcher?
 References:
 Anderson, G. and Arsenault, N. 1998. Fundamentals of Educational
Research. Psychology Press
 Intal, AM. 1988. Lecture Notes in Research Designs. UPLB
 Lodico, M., Spaulding, D. and Voegtle, K. 2006. Methods in
Educational Research: From Theory to Practice. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. USA
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g9Z_vkgPxMg - What is
research?
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v50ct9xJVKE
 What is research?