2.

Foundation and
Basement

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 Deep foundation
 The foundation is designed to be supported on deeper
geologic materials because either the soil or rock near
the ground surface is not competent enough to take the
design loads or it is more economical to do so.
 These are preferred where the soil strata at the surface
are not very good.
 Are not constructed by ordinary method of pit
excavation.
 The foundation is driven deep into the ground till it
reaches a hard strata or a layer of compacted soil.
 Deep foundation can be classified into;
• Pile foundation
• Pire foundation
• Caisson (Well foundation)
 Out of these, pile foundation is the most common type.

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 Pile foundation
 Commonly used in building construction.
 Piles
– Pile is the pillar like structure driven deep in to the ground to
strengthen foundation or improve strength of soil below
– It acts as support to the spread footing.
– it is also used individually or in cluster through out the area to
anchor the structure against uplifting and overturning force.

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 Use of piles
– In very poor soil condition
– Load of super structure is heavy and its distribution is
uneven
– In waterlogged soil (high water table>>uneconomical to
pump out water in case of shallow foundation.)
– In filling areas (where timbering in trench is very difficult)
– when the structure is on or near the sea shore or river bed.
– Canal or drainage lines exist near foundation
– Top soil is of expansive nature
– In the areas where the mat or grillage foundations are not
possible.
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 Classification of piles
– Based on function;
• Bearing piles
• Friction piles
• Sheet piles
• Tension piles/
uplift pile
• Anchor piles
• Batter piles
• Compaction piles
• Fender piles

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• End bearing/ bearing piles:
– Driven into the ground until hard
stratum is reached
– Used to transfer vertical loads.
– Do not carry load but medium to
transmit load to the hard strata
– Suitable for soft soil / water
logged
• Friction pile:
– Piles are driven at site to the
considerable depth
– Load carried by developing
Frictional force between the sides
of the pile and surrounding ground
or earth (skin friction) 7
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 Sheet piles:
– Different from bearing or friction
piles
– Sheet piles are long interlocking
structural sections.
– With a vertical interlocking system,
sheet piles create continuous walls
for construction projects.
– Used to function as retaining wall
– Create an extended barrier from soil
or water for either permanent or
temporary use.
– The steel sheets resist the lateral
bending forces, strengthening the
overall foundational structure.

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 Tension piles:
– Anchor down the structures subjected to uplift due to
hydrostatic pressure or due to overturning moment.
– The resisting force can be increased in the case of bored
piles by under-reaming.
 Anchor piles:
– Piles are provided to anchorage against horizontal pull
from sheet piling walls or other pulling forces
 Batter piles:
– Piles are driven at an inclined position to resist large
horizontal /Lateral or inclined forces
– Used where lateral forces are prominent. (tall chimneys,
Sea bridges………
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 Fender piles:
– used to protect concrete deck or other structures from impact
due to water, ships or other floating objects.
– Usually made of timber

 Compaction piles:
– Driven in granular soil to compact loose soil thus increasing
bearing capacity of the soil
– Do not carry themselves any load .
– Thus may be of weaker materials- sometimes of sand only.

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 Decking

Sheet

Bearing Anchor

Fender Batter

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 Based on material used;
– Cement concrete piles
• Cast-in-situ piles (max. design load of 750 KN)
– Driven piles (refer B.C Punmia, Building construction)
• Cased: Raymond, Mc Arthor, Monotube, western button
bottom, Swage etc.
• Uncased: Simplex, Franki, Vibro, Vibro-expanded, Pedestral,
Pressure etc.
– Bored piles (refer B.C Punmia, Building construction)
» Pressure piles, under-reamed piles and bored compaction
piles.
• Pre-cast piles (max. design load of 800KN)
• Pre-stressed piles
– Steel piles (H-beam, Box piles, pipe piles, screw piles and disc piles)
– Timber piles
– Composite piles
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– Sand piles
 Stages in Mc-Arthur pile
construction

Stages in Raymond pile

construction

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 Stages in Button-Bottom
pile construction

Stages in Swage pile

construction

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 Stages in Franki pile
construction

TUBE

SHOE

Stages Simplex pile

construction

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Stages Vibro pile
construction

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 Stages in Under-Reamed
pile construction

Stages in Bored compaction

pile construction

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Stages in Pressure pile
construction
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 Methods of pile driving
 Is the operation of forcing a
pile into the ground without
any previous excavation.
 Drop hammer
 Stem hammer
 Water jet
 Boring

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• A weight approximately
half that of the pile is
raised a suitable
distance in a guide and
released to strike the
pile head

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• Selection of types of pile
– Nature of structure
– Loading in structure
– Ground water table
– Length of pile required
– Availability of material and equipments
– Factors causing deterioration of piles
– Cost of piles

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 Well foundation
 Well foundation is the water tight box structure of wood/
RCC/steel and mostly used in the foundation of the
bridges.
 Is a type of large foundation that is constructed by
lowering pre constructed foundation elements through
excavation of soil or rock at the bottom of the foundation.
 The bottom of the caisson is usually sealed with concrete
after the construction is completed.

 Purpose: to develop an enclosure below for plumb and

provide access shaft to reach a deep tunnel transmitting
the loads to hard bearing strata.
 Types of well foundations (Caissons)
 Box caissons
 Well foundation or open caissons- single, double or cylindrical
 Pneumatic caissons 26
 SHAPES OF WELL

BOX CAISSON WELL FOUNDATION 27

PNEUMATIC CAISSON
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 Pier foundation
 Consists of a cylindrical column of large diameter to
support and transfer large super imposed loads.
 Load transfer is only through end bearing.
 Shallower depth than pile foundation.
 Preferred in location where the top strata consists
of decomposed rock >>driving of piles is very
difficult through decomposed rock)
 Preferred in case of stiff clay which offer large
resistance to driving of a bearing pile.

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Bearing capacity of soil
 The maximum load per unit area which the soil can carry
without displacement is termed as the bearing
capacity of soils.
 The intensity of loading, at the base of foundation, at
which soil support fails in shear is called ultimate bearing
capacity of soils.
 The maximum intensity of loading that the soil will safely
carry without risk of shear failure is called safe bearing
capacity of soil.
 Maximum bearing capacity of soil = W/ A
 Safe bearing capacity = W/(A*f)
where,
W is Total load including self weight
A is area of sole plate and 30
f is factor of safety (2-3)
Methods of improving bearing capacity of soil
 Mechanical stabilization  Chemical stabilization
 Mixing different graded  Calcium chloride, Sodium
soil chloride, Polymers, Chrome
 Change of grading Lignin, Sodium silicate
of soil  Thermal stabilization
 Mixing different  Heating, Freezing
graded soil  Grouting under pressure
 Use of roller  Sheet piling
 Sub-soil drainage
 Cement stabilization
 Mixing soil, cement and
water
 Lime stabilization
 Mixing soil, lime and water
 Bituminous stabilization
 Mixing of bitumen with soil
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 Foundation in black cotton soil

• Black cotton soil

– Good for agriculture and bad for structure.
– High shrinkage value due to change in moisture
content.
– Volume varies as 20-30% of original volume.
– Develops very wide and deep cracks due to
excessive shrinkage
– Very weak in saturation.
– Problematic for foundation. 33
Foundation in black cotton soil

• Precautions for foundations in black cotton soil

– Foundation depth be enough to hard strata.
– Measures to be applied to avoid water reaching to bottom
of foundation.
– Prevent foundation from direct contact with black cotton
soil.
– If thickness of black cotton soil is high, foundation is to be
laid on piles.
– Raft foundation is the choice in this condition.
– Tie-beam in plinth is important.
– Construction work should be done in dry season.
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Causes of foundation failure
• Unequal settlement of sub-soil
• Unequal load distribution
• Horizontal movement of soil adjoining structure
• Lateral pressure tending overturn
• Shrinkage due to withdrawal of moisture from soil
• Atmospheric action
• Lateral escape of soil below foundation
• Nearby building construction
• Trees etc.

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Settlement of foundation
• Causes of foundation settlement
– Consolidation of soil particles
– Reduction of moisture content
– Heaving of soil due to pressure
– General earth movement
• Effects of unequal settlements
– Stresses in structure
– Distortion of structure fabrics
– Failure of structure
• Prevention of undue unequal settlements
– Proper soil investigation
– Proper foundation design

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 UNDERPINNING FOUNDATIONS OF EXISTING BUILDING
 Definition
 It is a process of improving and strengthening existing
foundation
 It facilitates to support structure and assist in transferring loads
to better soil strata

 Purpose
 To strengthen the settled existing foundation.
 To strengthen the shallow foundation of existing building.
 Increasing load bearing capacity of foundation
 Change of functional use
 Addition in loading pattern
 To deepen the existing foundation.
 Construction of new basement.
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 Underpinning

 Operation to be carried out before underpinning

 Survey of structure
 Marking of Settlement if any
 Noticing neighbors (adjacent building)
 Setting indicators to identify probable cracks
while underpinning
 Carrying out corrective measures for cracks etc.
 Investigate sub-soil

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 Sequences of operation for underpinning
 Suitable holes driven through the wall and a needle beam is
inserted & supported on the jack
 Excavation is started up to foundation footing of the existing
foundation.
 The offset of the foundation is cutoff and removed & excavation
is reached to the defined depth
 New foundation is laid in the desired depth up to the underside
of the existing foundation
 This process is repeated in stages
 Final layer of pinning work just underside of existing foundation
should be done with the mortar from rapid hardening cement.

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Precautions
Excavation in one time done for less than one fourth of length, for
weak soil it is done for less than one fifth to one seventh of length,
normally length of one bay is taken as 1.5 m.
To be carried out slowly in stages and not at a time.

Methods of underpinning
 Pit method
 Ordinary
 Cantilever
 Pile method
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 Methods of underpinning
 Pit method
 Entire length of foundation to be underpinned
is divided into sections of 1.2m to 1.5m length.
 A hole is made for each section in the wall,
above the plinth level, and needle (timber or
steel section) is inserted. (each section at a
time)
 Bearing plates are placed above the needle to
support the masonry.
 Needle is supported on either side of the wall
on crib supports(wooden blocks) and screw
jacks.
 Foundation pit is excavated and new foundation
is laid.
 The process is repeated for alternate sections.

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 If an interior strong column exist, or if the foundation is to be extended only
to one side, cantilever needle beam may be used.
 Jack is placed between the column and the wall.

 Precautions
 Alternate sections in first round and
one section at a time.
 Work is started from middle section in
case of long wall and extended in both
directions.
 Proper timbering of trench in case of
deeper foundation.
 Needle beam should only be removed
when the new foundation becomes
strong enough.
 Needle holes should be closed.
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 Methods of underpinning
 Pile method
 Piles are driven at regular interval along
both the sides of the wall.
 Generally, bore hole pile or under-reamed
piles are used
 Piles are connected by concrete or steel
needles (acts as pile caps)
 Useful in clayey soils and also in water
logged areas.
 The existing foundation is very much
relieved of the load.

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 Methods of underpinning

wall wall weight

Needle beam Needle beam

Jack

Existing foundation Existing foundation

New foundation New foundation

wall

GL wall
Pile cap
Perforated pipe

GL
pile

Hard strata consolidation

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 Basement
 Basement is a space, a storey
or a floor immediately below
the adjacent ground level.
 Retaining wall is essential
component of basement.
 water proofing is the most
important consideration
beside structural design.

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Retaining wall
• Structural wall that resists lateral thrust of earth mass,
pressure of sub-soil water or hydrostatic pressure.
• Necessary in construction of hill roads, embankments, bridges
abutments, basement in buildings, water reservoirs…………….
• Also defined as wall provided to maintain ground at two diff.
levels.
• Four general types
 Gravity retaining wall
 Cantilever retaining wall
 Counter fort retaining wall
 Buttressed retaining wall
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Forces acting on the retaining walls
 Active earth pressure
 Lateral pressure that tends to move or overturn the wall at all times
 This is the result of earth wedge retained and any hydrostatic pressure
of ground water
 The hydrostatic pressure can be reduced by applying a subsoil
drainage behind or weep hole through the wall.

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Forces acting on the retaining walls
 Passive earth pressure
 The reactionary pressure that builds up to resist any forward
movement of the wall
 Forward movement of the wall will compress the soil in front thus the
reaction pressure to counteract this movement builds up.

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Forces acting on the retaining walls
 Angle of repose
 The steepest slope the soil can naturally maintain without sliding
downward.
 Varies from 450 to 00 angle for wet clay, but for most soils, this angle of
repose is 300.
 Varies depending on a soil’s sand, silt, and clay content, is also affected
by the amount of moisture contained in soil.

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Forces acting on the retaining walls
 Wedge of soil
 The mass of soil resting on the upper plane of the angle of repose
 Surcharge
 The additional mass of soil above the top surface of wall

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 Types of retaining walls
 Gravity walls
 Walls is so proportioned that the dead weight of the wall provides required
stability against the thrust exerted.
 Walls constructed in brick masonry, stone masonry or mass concrete (pcc).
 Can be faced with another material for aesthetic purpose.

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Types of retaining walls

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 Types of retaining walls
 Cantilever retaining walls
 RCC walls made in the form of inverted T
 Consists of three components (STEM/ HEEL/ TOE)
 Named so because of its parts(toe, heel, stem) behaves as cantilever beams
 Proves to be economical for moderate height (6-7m)
 Stability partially provided by the weight of earth in the heel

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Types of retaining walls

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 Types of retaining walls
 Counter fort retaining walls
 The base slab as well as the stem of the wall span horizontally as continuous
slabs between vertical brackets known as counter forts.
 Counter forts are provided behind the wall (on the backfill side)
 The spacing of counter forts may vary from 1/3 to ½ of the height.
 The more the height closer should be the spacing.
 Used when the height of the retaining wall to be provided exceed 7m.

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 Buttressed walls
 Similar to counter fort retaining wall with the main difference that the vertical
brackets are provided in front of the wall.
 The brackets are known as buttresses.
 The buttresses are subjected to compressive forces.

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 Types of Retaining wall

Gravity or Mass Retaining Wall

Cantilever Retaining wall

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 Four possible modes of failure
 Overturning about the toe
 Sliding on the base of the footing
 Excessive soil pressure
 The structural failure of components

 Function of retaining wall

 Strength, stability and Durability
 Resistance to overturn and horizontal slide
 Resistance to overstress in the materials of construction
 Resistance to overstress in the soil on which the wall rest

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Factors affecting strength, stability and durability of retaining wall

• Effect of ground water

– The sub-soil ground water reduces soil shear strength.
– Reduces bearing of the base and the soil
– Subsoil drainage is the solution for such problem.
• Effect of inadequate passive earth resistance
– The passive earth resistance at the front of the wall
resists sliding
– Insufficient passive pressure is not able to resist
sliding
– Provision of ribs under the heel and toe increase
passive pressure.

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 Design principle of retaining wall
 Overturning does not occur
 Sliding does not occur
 The soil beneath the wall is not overloaded
 The materials in the wall are not overstressed
 Factors to be considered during design
 Nature and type of soil
 Height of water table
 Sub-soil water movements
 Types of wall
 Materials used in the wall

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 Retaining properties and water proofing of basement:
 Moisture tends to enter the basement through the sides
of the wall as well as the floor.

 commonly prevented by the application of an unbroken

membrane or coating of suitable impermeable material
over the whole of the walls and floor.

 other alternative is Monolithic construction

(construction of watertight concrete consisting of high
grade dense concrete with or without an integral damp
proofing material), the other option is foundation drain.
….. 65
 Using membranes:
 In conditions where the sub-soil water table is low or where
the hydrostatic pressure is not much, water proofing of
basement is done by water proofing membranes.

 The water resistive membrane laid over the entire area,

extending it along the vertical walls up to the plinth above the
ground level.

 Bitumen felts is the most common materials used.

 In cases where moisture content is higher, 2 to 3 layers of

bitumen felt are used.
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 Monolithic Waterproofing:
 Here, the waterproofing is achieved through monolithic
construction of walls and floor by using dense reinforced
concrete and using impervious aggregates (sizes 12-
20mm).

 The structure itself acts as a barrier to moisture.

 The concrete used is preferably 1:1 ½: 3.

 Water cement ratio is kept as low as possible (less than

0.54) so as to minimize air voids. 67
 Monolithic Waterproofing:
 In order to reduce pores in such construction, the
volume of fine aggregate and cement is increased.

 To achieve impermeability, correct mix, correct

placement, proper curing is desired.

 Integral waterproofing can also be done by mixing

water proofing chemicals in the cement concrete.

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 Foundation drains:
 The foundation drain helps in lowering the effect of
hydrostatic pressure.
 In this method the area of the basement is disconnected
from the adjacent ground by excavating 70 cm to 100 cm
wide trench all around the basement.
 Open jointed and permeable drainage pipes are placed in
the trench as well as below the foundation at a certain grade
(slope) to drain off the water rising form below, which gets
accumulated in these pipes.
 This helps to reduce water penetrating from the sides into
the basement area and the foundation to remain relatively
dry.
 In case of higher hydrostatic pressure, foundation drains are
used in combination with membrane DPC or tanking.
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 Damp proof course for basement:
 Procedure:
 Provided on outside surface of wall and base of floor of basement
 DPC must withstand the water pressure from bottom
 Adequate dewatering arrangement should be applied to keep water
table below basement
 Suitable shuttering to be provided to prevent collapse of the sides

 RCC wall and slab be provided after DPC course

 Asphalt layer is best DPC in basement and it should be continuous
 There must be proper lapping of DPC in joints and cracks
 Base concrete (PCC) of sufficient thickness to be provided with
minimum projection of 15 cm beyond outer wall as a protective
before DPC
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