Automotive Mechatronics

Course code: ME (HO) 21004

[Honors in Hybrid and Electrical Vehicles]

Lecture: 04

Department of Mechanical Engineering

College of Engineering, Pune (COEP)
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Air Flow Sensors

• Air flow sensors measure either the volume or the mass of air flowing in a
channel.

• In an automobile, the primary use of an air flow sensor is to determine the

amount of air drawn into the engine through the intake manifold.

• There are two main types of air flow sensors: volume air flow sensors, which
measure the effect of moving air on a pinwheel or deflecting plate, and mass
air flow sensors, which measure the mass of air as it passes through the
sensor.

• As the load on an internal combustion engine varies, it is necessary to

determine how much air is entering the cylinders in order to determine how
much fuel to inject and how to adjust the engine timing.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Air Flow Sensors

• Because the stoichiometry of the air-fuel reaction depends fundamentally on

the mass (proportional to the number of molecules) of the air, rather than the
volume, the use of mass air flow sensors (MAFs) is much more widespread.

• The first airflow sensors to appear in cars measured the deflection of a plate
placed in the airflow path.

• Later, another style of volume air flow sensor, the Karman Vortex airflow
sensor, was introduced.

• This sensor determined the velocity of the air flow by monitoring the
frequency of an artificially induced turbulence using optical sensors. The
ECM combines volume airflow information with air temperature
measurements to calculate the mass air flow.
 UNIT 1:
Sensors: Air Flow Sensors

• There are several types of

mass air flow sensors. The
most common designs use a
thin resistive wire (usually
platinum) that hangs down
into the air flow.

• This wire is heated to a

specified temperature, usually
100's of degrees Fahrenheit
above the ambient
temperature detected by the
intake air temperature (IAT)
sensor.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Air Flow Sensors

• As the air moving through the sensor cools the hot wire, the current flow
through the wire changes. This current is detected by the sensor, which then
relays this information to the ECM.

• Other types of mass airflow

sensors include "cold-wire"
sensors (which detect the
varying inductance of a circuit
connected to thin metallic strips
that vibrate as the air goes by)
and membrane sensors (MEMS
devices that use the change in
temperature of a heated
membrane to detect air flow in a
manner similar to the "hot wire"
sensor).
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Air Flow Sensors

• As the air moving through the sensor cools the hot wire, the current flow
through the wire changes. This current is detected by the sensor, which then
relays this information to the ECM.

• Other types of mass airflow

sensors include "cold-wire"
sensors (which detect the
varying inductance of a circuit
connected to thin metallic strips
that vibrate as the air goes by)
and membrane sensors (MEMS
devices that use the change in
temperature of a heated
membrane to detect air flow in a
manner similar to the "hot wire"
sensor).
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Air Pressure Sensor

• Pressure is a non-directional force in gasses and liquids that is expressed as

function of force over a given surface area (e.g. pounds per square inch or
PSI).

• Depending on the application, it may be useful to know the pressure in a

given environment in either absolute terms or relative terms.

• Absolute pressure refers to the amount of pressure in a certain system in

relation to zero pressure.

• Relative pressure on the other hand, refers to the pressure as it relates to the
ambient or surrounding pressure.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Air Pressure Sensor

• Different types of pressure sensors employ various technologies. Sensors

that use piezoresistive strain gauges take advantage of the electro-
mechanical properties of certain materials.

• As pressure is applied to a diaphragm containing a piezoresistive element,

the diaphragm deflects causing the piezoresistive element to bend resulting
in a change in its resistance.

• The change in the resistance of the element can then be used to determine
the pressure behind the diaphragm.

• Similarly, piezoelectric elements generate an electric potential proportional

to the material deformation.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Air Pressure Sensor

• Other pressure sensor technologies are based on electromagnetic, optical or

potentiometric effects.

• Though the technologies differ, the basic principle behind them is the same.

• Each pressure sensor detects the strain or displacement of a material within

the sensor and translates that information into a pressure value.

• Pressure sensors are used to measure various hydraulic and gas pressures in
automotive systems.

• Hydraulic pressures for example are measured in the brake system,

hydraulic suspension systems and at different points in the fuel system (e.g.
the fuel pump and injection rail).
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Air Pressure Sensor

• Gas pressures are employed in tire pressure monitoring systems, pneumatic

suspension systems and the air conditioning systems.

• A manifold absolute pressure sensor (MAP) may be used to determine the

air pressure in the intake manifold relative to atmospheric pressure.

• Some engine control systems also measure the environment air pressure in
order to calculate the air mass corresponding to a measured air volume in
the intake manifold.

• In turbocharged engines, one or more air pressure sensors may be necessary

to measure the charge pressure.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Air Pressure Sensor
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Ambient Light Sensors

• Ambient light sensors (ALS) detect the amount of light in the environment
and are used by systems that need this information such as headlight
controls, interior lighting controls, and climate controls. Light sensors are
generally based on one of three types of components: photoresistors,
photodiodes or phototransistors.

• Photoresistors or Photocells are two terminal components, and (as the

name implies) the resistance between these terminals varies depending on
the amount of light striking the component face. The resistance is
proportional to changes in light intensity. However, they are relatively
inaccurate and have a property called light "memory" which makes its
response to a given light level dependent on previous ambient light levels.
Photoresistors require external calibration in all but the simplest
applications due to the variation in sensitivity between units. Photoresistors
are generally the least expensive light detecting option and have a relatively
slow (milliseconds) response time.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Ambient Light Sensors

• Photodiodes are also two terminal components. They are capable of

developing a voltage across the terminals that is proportional to the amount
of light striking the sensor surface. Photodiodes exhibit a linear relationship
between their output current and the illumination level, but the output
current is very small (in the range of tens of nA per 1m/ft2). Also, the
photodiode's variation in sensitivity can be up to ±25% between units.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Ambient Light Sensors

• Phototransistors are two terminal transistors. The third terminal, the base
in a bipolar transistor or the gate in a field-effect transistor, is replaced by
the light collecting surface. The amount of light striking the surface
supplies the base (or gate) current and regulates the amount of current that
can flow from the collector to emitter (or source to drain). Phototransistors
produce an output current proportional to the incident light intensity. They
are generally much faster than photoresistors and do not have the light
"memory" property. However, the variation in sensitivity can be ±50% or
more between units [4]. Phototransistors are slightly more expensive than
the other options, but they are more versatile and have quick (nanoseconds)
response times.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Antennas

• Antennas sense an electromagnetic field and convert it to an electrical

signal.

• There are many antennas in a typical automobile including antennas for

AM and FM radio reception, GPS navigation, Bluetooth communications,
cellular telephone communications, and possibly DSRC communication.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Antennas

• Antennas are also an integral part of radar distance sensors.

• Connected vehicles technologies require the car to open an increasing

number of communication links.

• Thus, the design and placement of the antennas in a car is becoming a

significant concern.

• Multi-band and reconfigurable antenna systems capable of transmitting and

receiving in different frequency bands are likely to play an increasingly
important role.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Crankshaft/Camshaft position

• Crank or camshaft position sensors and engine speed sensors are similar
devices that operate based on pulse detection and counting.

• The fundamental components of these sensors include a toothed disc

mounted on the shaft, a stationary detector and electronic circuitry (Fig-1).

• The disc has teeth or marks distributed evenly around the circumference.

• When the shaft spins, teeth or marks pass by the stationary detector and
generate a series of electrical pulses.

• The frequency of these pulses is detected and converted to the

corresponding shaft rotation speed.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Crankshaft/Camshaft position
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Crankshaft/Camshaft position

• The relative angular position can be obtained by counting the number of

pulses.

• Additional reference markers are required to sense the absolute position of

the crank or camshaft.

• The Crank position sensor is usually mounted in the crankcase over the
toothed wheel on the crankshaft.

• The Camshaft position sensor is usually mounted in line with the toothed
wheel on the end of the camshaft.

• It is usually hidden under the timing chain cover on the front of the engine.

• Some sensors have two sets of discs with a constant phase shift in order to
determine the direction of the rotary motion.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Crankshaft/Camshaft position

• Generally, there are four types of crankshaft or camshaft position sensors:

magnetic pick-up coils, Hall-effect sensors, magneto-resistive element
(MRE) sensors, and optical sensors.

• The first three utilize the metal teeth of a wheel to generate a series of
electric pulses, based on changes in the magnetic field, as the teeth come
into the proximity of the sensor.

• Optical position sensors use a light-emitting diode (LED) light source and a
photodiode to detect optical marks on the shaft or slots in a disk as they
move past the detector.

• Optical sensors have a good degree of accuracy and are suitable for both
high-speed and low-speed applications, but the optical components and disc
must be kept clean to ensure an accurate reading.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Distance Sensors - Acoustic

• The most common

automotive applications for
acoustic distance sensors are
for back-up warning systems
and parking assistance
systems.

• Acoustic distance sensors

generally cost less than
comparable RADAR sensors
and they are more accurate
for detecting objects a short
distance away.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Distance Sensors - Acoustic

• Acoustic distance sensors work by transmitting an acoustic signal (sound)

and "listening" for the reflected signal.

• The delay associated with reception of the reflected signal can be correlated
to the distance of the reflecting object.

• Acoustic sensors generate a signal by moving a diaphragm quickly back

and forth displacing the air around the diaphragm, creating an acoustic
wave.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Distance Sensors - Acoustic

• Acoustic distance sensors usually operate at ultrasonic frequencies (40 -

250 kHz).

• Ultrasonic sensors are very good at detecting objects, that are relatively
large compared to ultrasonic wavelengths (~1cm).

• Ultrasonic signals propagate in air, so acoustic sensors may not be reliable

in situations where the air is moving at a high speed unless the air speed
can be measured and compensated for.

• Acoustic sensors also have difficulty making a reliable measurement in

acoustically noisy environments.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Distance Sensors - Optical

• LIDAR (for Light Detection and Ranging) sensors work by transmitting a

pulse of light (usually red or infrared) and waiting for the reflected signal.

• The delay associated with reception of the reflected signal can be correlated
to the distance of the reflecting object. LIDAR sensors are used on
autonomous driving vehicles.

• They can detect objects with much greater resolution than radar or acoustic
sensors due to the small wavelengths employed.

• However, the optical signals are more easily scattered by small particles in
the air such as rain, smoke or dense fog.

• Since LIDAR signals are very directional, coverage of a wide area

generally requires the beam to be scanned using mechanical movement.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Distance Sensors - Optical

• Because of this, LIDAR is generally more expensive than other types of

distance sensors.

• Another type of optical distance sensor is the proximity sensor.

• These sensors utilize an LED or laser as an emitter and a photodiode as a

receiver.

• The emitter's beam is directed onto the surface it is detecting where it

diffusely reflects.

• Some of the reflected beam will be directed towards the photodiode if the
object is within the measurement range.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Distance Sensors - RADAR

• Some cars and trucks are equipped with headway sensors that detect the
distance between a vehicle and any vehicles or large objects in front of the
vehicle.

• These sensors are used by adaptive cruise control and/or collision

avoidance systems.

• Most existing headway sensors use a 76.5 GHz radar, but other frequencies
(e.g. 24 GHz, 35 GHz and 79 GHz) are also in use.

• Some systems use infrared sensors instead of (or in addition to) the
RADAR sensors.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Distance Sensors - RADAR

• There are two primary methods of measuring distance using radar.

• The first is known as the direct propagation method and measures the delay
associated with reception of the reflected signal which can be correlated to
the distance of the reflecting object as a function of the speed of light and
the period or rather, the time delay in the transmission and receiving of the
waves.

• The second method is known as the indirect propagation method or the

Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) method.

• For indirect propagation, a modulated frequency is sent and received, the

difference in the frequency can be used to directly determine the distance as
well as the relative speed of the object.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Distance Sensors - RADAR

• Radar signals are very good at detecting objects that strongly reflect
electromagnetic radiation (e.g. metal objects).

• Because they operate at wavelengths on the order of a few millimeters,

automotive radar systems are pretty good at detecting objects that are
several centimeters or larger.

• They are also good at looking through (i.e. ignoring objects that are small
relative to a wavelength (e.g. the water droplets in fog).

• Other automotive systems that use radar distance sensors include collision
avoidance systems, blind spot detection systems and automated parking
systems.
UNIT 1:
Sensors: Distance Sensors - RADAR
Thank you!