Chapter 05

Gravitation and Motion: Early history of Astronomy

This is what you can see in the sky with Naked eye or normal binocular
 Improved technology
Improved technology helps to see heavenly bodies clearly and closely

Galileo Telescope Large Mirror Telescope Hubble Space Telescope James Webb Space Telescope

Rocket Technology is crucial for the space exploration

The person behind the Rocket Technology is Von Braun
 Von Braun is widely seen as the "father of
space travel",[9] the "father of rocket science"[10]
or the "father of the American lunar program".
[11]
He advocated a human mission to Mars.

OHN F. KENNEDY: We choose to

go to the moon in this decade
and do the other things, not
because they are easy, but
because they are hard. (1962)
V2-Rocket Replica
 5.1 Motivation 20th Century space initiatives

World war II ended in May 1945, Germany was defeated and 2

main powers appeared on the stage (Soviet Union and USA).

First unmanned spacecraft: Sputnik 1 was the first artificial

satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit (LEO) by
the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957.

First manned spacecraft: Vostok 1, which carried Soviet Astronaut

Yuri Gagarin into space in 1961, and completed a full Earth.

NASA of USA (Apollo 1 – Apollo 17 (1969 – 1972).

Till now, only 3 nations managed to send manned spacecrafts

(USA, Russia and China)
This is what we know now
 5.2 The Earth-Centered Astronomy of Ancient Greece
Basic assumptions of Greek astronomers:

A. Spherical Earth is stationary, at the center of the

universe.
B. Earth is corrupt, heavens are perfect.
C. Heavenly bodies move with uniform circular motion.

Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC):

1. Proved that the earth is spherical
2. Believed that the earth is the center of the solar system
and that everything revolves around it
3. Believed that stars are fixed in space.
4. Total of 55 celestial spheres that fits around each other
and their motion is rotation.
5. The outermost sphere is the sky with stars
6. Outside this sphere is the prime mover that caused the
rotation
 Aristarchus of Samos

Aristarchus, named after the

Greek astronomer
Aristarchus of Samos, is a
prominent lunar impact crater
that lies in the northwest part of
the Moon's near side. It is
considered the brightest of the
large formations on the lunar
surface, with an albedo nearly
double that of most lunar
features.

His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the sun remain unmoved, that the earth
revolves about the sun on the circumference of a circle, the sun lying in the middle of
the orbit, and that the sphere of the fixed stars, situated about the same center as the
sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the earth to revolve bears such a
proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the center of the sphere bears to its
surface.

He could not explain star parallax

He was ahead of time.
 The Sun-centered Universe

Copernicus Heliocentric
Model:
1- Sun at center of universe
2- Planets orbit sun in perfect
circles
3- Stars on a huge fixed sphere

There was no concept of gravity developed, why the birds and clouds are left
behind if the earth is moving?
 5.2 The Earth-Centered Astronomy of Ancient Greece

Ptolemy (90 – 168 AD) Planets has two type of motion:

• Earth-centered model which included a Prograde = Moving forward
complex system of perfect circles for the Retrograde = Moving backward
orbits of planets, sun, and moon around
Earth. It was not challenged for 1300 years.
 5.2 The Earth-Centered Astronomy of Ancient Greece
Ptolemy (90 – 168 AD)

Aristotle was supported by Ptolemy

-The earth is the center of the universe and it is at rest

-Planets goes round the complicated circular motion

-His major work is known as almagest (Greatest)

-His tables of planetery motions were resonably accurate, and they were accepted for 15
centuries.
5.2 The Earth-Centered Astronomy of Ancient Greece
Ptolemy (90 – 168 AD)
Prograde and Retrograde Motion

The orange moon is on

retrograde motion

This picture is not real. It is

schematic to show the
retrograde motion
 5.3 A Heretical Idea: The Sun-centered Universe

• In the 16th Century, the Polish Copernicus

proposed a heliocentric model for the universe

and stated that Sun, not Earth, was at the center

of the universe.

• Stated that the earth spins once per day on its

axis and revolves around the sun in one year

• He published his book De Revolutionibus

(Concerning the Revolutions) in 1543.

• The book was dedicated to pope. (trick)

• He did not receive the book until his death.

 5.3 A Heretical Idea: The Sun-centered Universe
Giordano Bruno (/dʒɔːrˈdɑːnoʊ ˈbruːnoʊ/, Italian: [dʒorˈdaːno ˈ
bruːno]; Latin: Iordanus Brunus Nolanus; born Filippo Bruno, 1548
– 17 February 1600) was an Italian Dominican friar, philosopher,
mathematician, poet, cosmological theorist, and Hermetic occultist.[3]
[4]
He is known for his cosmological theories, which conceptually
extended the then-novel Copernican model. He proposed that the
stars were distant suns surrounded by their own planets, and he
raised the possibility that these planets might foster life of their own,
a philosophical position known as cosmic pluralism. He also insisted
that the universe is infinite and could have no "centre".

Starting in 1593, Bruno was tried for heresy by the

Roman Inquisition on charges of denial of several core
Catholic doctrines, including eternal damnation, the Trinity,
the divinity of Christ, the virginity of Mary, and
transubstantiation.

He was burned alive for his view.

 5.4 The keen eyes of Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) From Denmark

1- Built instruments of
high accuracy.

2- Studied the planetary

positions.

3- He gathered a huge
amount of data about
planets motions,
positions, orbits.

4- He was Kepler’s
Teacher
High altitude observatory
5- Lost funding in
Denmark and left for
Prague.
 5.5 Johannes Kepler and his laws of orbits
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) from Germany
• Worked with Tycho Brahe and kept his equipment and notes

• Proposed that orbits of planets are ellipses, not circles

• Developed 3 simple laws to explain planetary motion in 1609

• I- 1st law- Orbit of all planets are ellipses with the sun at one focus

• II- 2nd law – Law of Equal Areas which defines planetary speed as they go
around the Sun

• III- 3rd law – As planet distance from the Sun increases, orbital period
increases
Retrograde Motion of mars explained!

Retrograde Motion (link)

 5.5a Kepler’s 1st Law of Planetary Motion
The orbit of a planet is an ellipse, with the sun at one focus.

Kepler's First law Video link

Major axis = longest

diameter of ellipse.

Semimajor axis = half

the major axis.
5.5a Kepler’s 1st Law of Planetary Motion
Eccentricity (e)

distance between foci c

ecentricity  
the length of major axis b
5.5a Kepler’s 1st Law of Planetary Motion
Eccentricity of Planets

Planetary orbit eccentricities

 Mercury .206
 Venus .0068
 Earth .0167
 Mars .0934
 Jupiter .0485
 Saturn .0556
 Uranus .0472
 Neptune .0086
 Pluto .25
5.5b Kepler’s 2nd Law of Planetary Motion
A line that connects a planet
to the sun sweeps out equal
areas in equal times.
When a planet is nearer the
sun in its orbit (perihelion),
it moves faster. When it’s
farther from the sun
(aphelion), it moves slower.

Kepler’s Second law Video link

5.5b Kepler’s 2nd Law of Planetary Motion
A line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

Kepler’s Second law Video link

Animation Link
Why is the summer longer than winter? Autumnal Equinox (beg. of fall)

July Summer
Winter solstice
solstice
(beg. of winter)
(beg. of
Northern Hemisphere Fall Summer summer)

Winter Spring

January
Vernal equinox
(beg. of spring)
5.5c Kepler’s 3rd Law of Planetary Motion

Planet, etc. Distance from Sun Period (Time for one

revolution around the Sun)
Mercury 0.39 AU 88 days
Venus 0.72 AU 225 days
Earth 1.00 AU 365 days
Mars 1.5 AU 687 days
Jupiter 5.2 AU 11.9 years
Saturn 9.5 AU 29.4 years
Halley’s ~ 17 AU 76 years
Comet
 5.5c Kepler’s 3rd Law of Planetary Motion
The square of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-
major axis of its orbit.

Kepler’s Third law Video link

Animation Link
2 3
𝑃 =𝑘 𝑅
 Jun, July
January Moves slower
Moves faster to swipe a bigger area
 2 3
𝑃 =𝑘 𝑅

For earth, P = 1 Year, R = 1 AU, k = 1

1 𝐴. 𝑈 .=0.15 × 109𝑘𝑚
2 3
𝑃 =𝑅

( 250 )2= 𝑅 3

( 250 )2/ 3= 𝑅

𝑅=39.7 𝐴𝑈
 2 3
𝑃 =𝑘 𝑅

For earth, P = 1 Year, R = 1 AU, k = 1

2 3
𝑃 =𝑅

( 𝑃 )2=1.5 3

3 /2
𝑃 = ( 1.5 )

𝑃=1.84 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
Geostationary orbit
Satellite’s orbital period depends on its radius. If you make a
satellite revolving round the earth in 24 Hrs or 1 day, spinning
period of the earth, it will always face a specific area all the
time.

They looks stationary from the earth, that’s why they are
called Geostationary.

All TV station satellites are geostationary satellites.

Geostationary orbits are as high as 6.5 times the radius of the

earth from the center of the earth

6.5RE
 5.6 The Demise of the Ptolemaic Model: Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilee (1564–1642, Italy)

• Father of observational
astronomy
• While Galileo did not invent the
telescope, he was the first to
use the telescope for astronomy

German lens maker Hans Lippershey

invented Telescope 1609
 Galileo’s Astronomical Accomplishments

• Redesigned the telescope to be

suited for observing the sky (14X
magnification)

• Discovered that there were

many stars not visible to the
naked eye
More Galileo

• Discovered mountains, craters,

and plains on Moon
• Discovered phases of Venus
similar to the moon
 And More Galileo

• Discovered sunspots on Sun

 Still More Galileo

• Discovered 4 moons orbiting

Jupiter, “Galilean” moons of
Jupiter: Io, Europa,
Ganymede, & Callisto.
Progress at Personal Cost

• Placed under house arrest by Catholic Church and made to confess

“vainglorious ambition” and mistakes of “pure ignorance” (aka –
renounce Copernicanism)
• Not all religious: some political and personal rivalries, too
• Worked on laws of motion and falling bodies until his death (8 years
later)
Phases of Venus….Evidence for a Heliocentric Solar system
Venus shows phases like those of the Moon.
 5.7 On the Shoulders of Giants: Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton (1642-1727, England)
• Not expected to live over a
few hours…instead lived 84
years and 3 months
• Served as England’s
“Master of the Mint”
• Knighted in 1705
Newton’s Contributions

• Invented calculus (at age 23!)

• Realized that “white light” can be broken down into colors of rainbow
using a prism (age 30)
• Invented reflecting (mirror-based) telescope, a great improvement
over Galileo’s refracting (lens-based) telescope
More Newton

• Mathematically derived Kepler’s 3 Laws.

• Law of Gravity:
• Gravity exists between any 2 objects that have mass
• Gravity is always attractive, never repulsive
• Gravity increases with increasing mass
• Gravity decreases with increasing distance
• 3 Laws of Motion
 Newton’s First Law of Motion
A body continues at rest or in uniform motion
in a straight line unless acted upon by some
net force (Law of inertia).

If you want to go to mars, you can switch off your engine after
you escape from the earth until you reach the mars why?

There are many manmade objects that crossed the solar

system and they don’t have fuel at all. How is it possible?
Manmade Objects Escaping Solar System
S. Kunwar 43
Newton’s 1st law applied to Planets
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
The magnitude of the force can be calculated as:
 
F  ma Pull

If body is not moving (v =0) or moving with

constant velocity, there is no force (F =0 )

Unit of Force: N
 
F  ma  Kg .m / s  N
2
Push

How much is 1N force?

  F
F  ma  1Kg.1m / s 2  1N
Newton’s Second law gives the quantitative definition of force a
S. Kunwar 45
Acceleration of Gravity

Acceleration
of gravity is
independent
Iron ball
Wood ball
of the mass
(weight) of the
falling object!
Newton’s Third Law: Action and opposite Reaction
To every action there is equal and When we are on scale the gravity pull us
opposite reaction down as an action but the scale surface
push us up as an reaction.

A FBA

B FAB

  Our weight is a Reaction against gravity!

FAB   FBA
FN = W
W – mg = 0
FAB = Force on A due to B
FBA = Force on B due to A W = mg
mg

Our weight is a normal force from the

S. Kunwar 47
scale surface
 The Universal Law of Gravity
Any two bodies are attracting each other through
gravitation, with a force proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of their distance:

Mm
F=-G r2

(G is the Universal constant of gravity.)

48
 The Universal Law of Gravity
• After formulating his three laws
of motion, Newton realized that
there must be some force
governing the motion of the
planets around the Sun

• Amazingly, Newton was able to

connect the motion of the
planets to motions here on Earth
through gravity

49
 Gravity - Examples
• Weight is the force you feel due to the gravitational force
between your body and the Earth
• We can calculate this force since we know all the variables

11 N m 2
(6.67  10 2
)( 72 kg )( 5 . 97  10 24
kg )
Gm1m2 kg
Fg  
r 2
(6.378  10 m)
6 2

Fg  705N

50
 Gravity - Examples
• What if we do the same calculation for a person standing on the
Moon?
• All we have to do is replace the Earth's mass and radius with the Moon's

11 N m 2
(6.67  10 2
)( 72 kg )( 7 .35  10 22
kg )
Gm1m2 kg
Fg  
r 2
(1.738  10 m)
6 2

Fg  117 N

51
 Gravity - Examples
• If gravity works on any two bodies in the universe, why don't we all
cling to each other?
• Replace the from previous examples with two people and the distance with
5 meters

11 N m 2
(6.67  10 2
)( 72kg )(65kg )
Gm1m2 kg
Fg  2
 2
r (5m)
8
Fg  0.0000000125 N  1.25 10 N

52
 Understanding Orbital Motion
The universal law of gravity allows us to understand
orbital motion of planets and moons:
• Earth and moon attract each other through gravitation.

• Since Earth is much more massive than the

moon, the moon’s effect on Earth is small.

• Earth’s gravitational force constantly

accelerates the moon towards Earth.

• This acceleration is constantly changing the

moon’s direction of motion, holding it on its
almost circular orbit.
53
 Orbital Motion
In order to stay on a closed orbit,
an object has to be within a certain
range of velocities:

Too slow => Object falls back down to

Earth

Too fast => Object escapes Earth’s

gravity
54
 mM mv 2
Time Period (T)
G 2 
r r For Geostationary orbit of satellite

M
G  v2  4 2  3
r T 2

 GM 
r
2
 
M  2r 
G  
( )
2
2 4 × 3.14 3
r  T  (24 ×3600 𝑠) = −11 24
𝑟
6.67 ×10 ×5.97 ×10
7
𝑟 =4 . 22× 10 𝑚
 4 2  3 6
T 2

 GM 
r
𝑟 𝐸=6 . 7 ×10 𝑚
 
𝑟 =6.3 𝑟𝐸
‫إنجازات علماء العرب والمسلمين في علم الفلك‬

‫‪56‬‬
57
 ‫فضل المسلمين في علم الفلك على العالم يتلخص في‬

‫نقل المسلمين للكتب الفلكية القديمة عند اليونان والفرس والروم والسريان‪ ،‬وتصحيح بعض أغالطها •‬
‫والتوسع فيها‪ ،‬ال سيما أن أصول تلك الكتب ضاعت ولم يبق منها غير ترجماتها في العربية‪ ،‬وهذا ما‬
‫‪.‬جعل األوربيين يأخذون العلم عن المسلمين‪ ،‬فكانوا ‪-‬أي المسلمون‪ -‬بذلك أساتذة العالم فيه‬
‫‪.‬إضافاتهم المهمة واكتشافاتهم الجليلة التي تقدمت بعلم الفلك شوًطا بعيًد ا •‬
‫‪.‬جعلهم علم الفلك استقرائًّيا‪ ،‬وعدم وقوفهم فيه عند حد النظريات‪ ،‬كما فعل اليونان •‬
‫‪.‬تطهير علم الفلك من أدران التنجيم •‬

‫‪58‬‬
‫ديفيد كينج‬
‫إن هناك أكثر من ‪ 5000‬مخطوطة عن الفلك العربي واإلسالمي مبعثرة في •‬
‫مكتبات العالم تحتوي على معلومات خصبة وغنية‪ ،‬وال تزال هذه المخطوطات‬
‫‪.‬مكدسة لم تصل إليها حتى اآلن يد البحث والدراسة‬
‫اكتشف ديفيد كينج عام ‪1970‬م أن كثيًر ا من النظريات المنسوبة لنيكوالس •‬
‫كوبرنيكوس هي للفلكي العربي ابن الشاطر (ت ‪777‬هـ‪1375 ،‬م)‪ ،‬وبعد ذلك‬
‫بثالث سنوات (‪1973‬م) عثر على مخطوطات عربية في بولندا اتضح منها أن‬
‫‪.‬كوبرنيكوس قد اطلع عليها‬

‫‪https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Shatir‬‬

‫‪59‬‬
‫أدوات‬
‫و (ذات الجيب) و (ذات النقطتين) و (عصا الطوسي) وهو جهاز مستخدم )الحلقة االعتدالية( •‬
‫‪.‬في علم الفلك وال تزال في المتاحف االوروبية موجودة‬

‫‪60‬‬
‫في المراصد العربية اإلسالمية في العصور الوسطى كانت‬
‫هناك آالت فلكية لرصد الكواكب والنجوم ومعرفة خطوط‬
‫الطول والعرض‬
‫وقد اهتم العلماء العرب المسلمون بآالت الرصد وهرعوا‬
‫إلى ابتكارها‪ ،‬وذلك ألن ما ورثوه عن اإلغريق كان بسيطا‬
‫ال يفي باحتياجاتهم العلمية‪،‬‬

‫‪61‬‬
‫كتاب اآلالت العجيبة للعالم أبي جعفر الخازن وقد اشتمل على آالت كثيرة من آالت الرصد‪،‬‬
‫ورسالة فارسية في وصف بعض اآلالت لغياث الدين الكاشي ذكر بها آالت لم يذكرها َم ن‬
‫سبقه وهي ذات السدس‪ ،‬وذات الثلث‪ .‬وقد سجل تاريخ العلوم لكثير من الفلكيين العرب اختراع‬
‫بعض آالت الرصد الفلكية ومنهم تقي الدين الراصد الذي تحدث عن تلك اآلالت في كتابه‬
‫سدرة المنتهى‬

‫‪62‬‬
‫و الزرقالي وهو من علماء األندلس اخترع آلة الربع التام وهي آلة •‬
‫‪،‬تفوقت على كثير من آالت الرصد في عصره‬
‫اللبنة وهي جسم مربع مستو يعرف به الميل الكلي وأبعاد الكواكب •‬
‫والحلقة االعتدالية وهي حلقة تنصب في سطح دائرة المعدل ليعلم بها •‬
‫التحول االعتدالي‬
‫ومن أكثر آالت الفلك التي نالت اهتماما من علماء الفلك العرب •‬
‫المسلمين‪ :‬األسطرالب و المزولة‬

‫‪63‬‬
‫ولقد ثبت أن آالت ذات السمت واالرتفاع وذات األوتار والمشبهة بالمناطق وعصا الطوسي •‬
‫كلها من مخترعات العرب عدا ما اخترعوه للمراصد من البراكير والمساطر وعدا التحسينات‬
‫‪.‬التي أدخلوها على آالت الرصد المعروفة لإلغريق وغير اإلغريق‬

‫‪64‬‬