KNOWLEDGE AREA: Diversity,

change and continuity

TOPIC 1: Biodiversity of Plants
and Reproduction
Orchids

Biodiversity of Plants
 All the plants in the plant kingdom maybe
grouped into vascular and non-vascular plants.
 Vascular plants are those with conducting tissue.
 Non-vascular plants are those that do not have
conducting tissue.
 Do you remember that conducting tissue are
xylem and phloem?
 Some examples of non-vascular plants are
mosses, liverworts and hornworts.
 These plants belong
to the Phylum
Bryophyta.
 The vascular plants
may be further
divided into those that
bear seeds and those
that do not.
 An example of
seedless plants are
the ferns.
 Pine tree and
flowering plants are
examples of seed-
bearing plants.
 The ferns belong to the Phylum Pteridophyta.
 While the pine plant belongs to the Phylum
Gymnosperm and the flowering plants belong to
the Phylum Angiosperm.
 All plants have a lifecycle that is made up of 2
generations.

These 2 generations are the:
1. Gametophyte
2. Sporophyte
 These generations alternate with each other.
 One generation gives rise to the other.
 You will learn more about this in grade 12.
 This group is made up of 3
large groups.
 They are the:
a. Mosses
b. Liverworts
liverwort
c. Hornworts
 All these are terrestrial
plants.
 They grow in damp, shady
ground.
 The liverworts and
hornworts are because of
their shapes. hornwort
 The most well known
bryophyte is the
moss.
 In the bryophytes the
dominant generation
is the gametophyte.
 The gametophyte is
dominant because it
lives longer and is
larger than the
sporophyte
generation. The moss showing the 2
generations
 The plant has root-like
structures called
rhizoids.
 The rhizoids anchor the
plant to the ground.
 The moss also has stem-
like and leaf-like
structures.

Since the moss has no
true roots, stems and
leaves it is called a Moss-gametophyte
thallus.
 The moss also lacks
xylem and phloem.
 Therefore we say it
lacks conducting
tissue.
 They reproduce using
spores and have no
seeds. Moss showing the
 These spores occur in sporophyte
spore bearing
capsules, therefore the
moss has no fruits.

Spore bearing
capsule
 The male and female reproductive organs are
found on different branches of the same plant.
 The sperms have to move from the male
reproductive organs to the female reproductive
organs.
 The sperms swim to reach the egg in the female
reproductive organ.
 The sperms swim in a film of water to reach the
egg.
 Therefore we say that the moss is
dependent on water for reproduction.
 During asexual reproduction spores are
produced.
 These spores are dispersed by wind.

The moss is dependent on dry weather for
the release and dispersal of spores.
 This phylum includes
the ferns, horsetails
and whisk ferns.
fern

Horsetail
fern

Whisk fern
 These plants have vascular tissue.
 They also have supporting tissue.
 They therefore have true roots, stems and leaves.

The Pteridophytes are not thallus plants.

They reproduce using spores, they do not
produce seeds.
 Spores are made and stored in spore bearing
capsules.

They do not have fruits.
 They undergo both sexual and asexual
reproduction.
 The sperms need to swim to reach the egg in the
female reproductive organ.
 The sperm swims in water.
 Therefore the pteridophytes depend on water for
sexual reproduction.
 During asexual reproduction spores are
produced.
 These spores depend on dry weather for their
release and dispersal.
 The dominant generation is the sporophyte
generation.
 The sporophyte generation is dominant because
it is able to stay alive and produce spores for
many cycles.
 The gametophyte generation dies after just one
cycle of gamete formation and fertilization.
1. Explain how the pteridophyte is more advanced
than the bryophyte.
2. Explain how the bryophyte and the
pteridophyte are the same.
1. The pteridophyte has true roots, stems and
leaves. They are not thallus plants. They have
conducting and supporting tissue. Therefore
they can grow taller.
2. Both the bryophyte and pteridophyte depend
on water for sexual reproduction. They both
depend on dry weather for spore release and
dispersal. They both do not produce seeds and
fruit. They produce spores.
 All plants that bear seeds belong to the phylum
Spermatophyta.

These plants maybe separated into 2 groups,
those that bear naked seeds and those whose
seeds occur within fruit.
 The plants that produce naked seeds belong to
the group Gymnosperms.
 The plants that produce seeds within fruits
belong to the group Angiosperms.
 There are 4 groups of Gymnosperms.
 These 4 groups are:-

1. Conifers
2. Cycads
3. Gnetophytes
4. Ginkgophytes
1. The Conifers:
 These are cone
bearing plants.
 They are made up of
about 600 different
species.
 This makes them the
biggest group of
gymnosperms.
 Some examples are
pine trees, yellow
woods, red woods and
firs. A selection of Conifers
2. The Cycads:
 They form the second
largest group of
gymnosperms.
 They are made up of
130 extant species.
 Extant means that the
organism is not
extinct.
 There were a much Cycads
larger population of
cycads but many of
them became extinct.
3. The Gnetophytes:
 This group is very
small.
 It is made up of only
3 genera. (Genera is
plural of genus)
 One example is the
Welwitschia Welwitschia mirabilis
mirabilis, that is
found in the Namib
Desert.
4. The Ginkgophytes:
 This group is made
up of only one
species.
 This species is called
the Ginkgo biloba.
 The Ginkgo biloba is
commonly known Maidenhair tree
as the maidenhair
tree.
 These plants have conducting tissue, therefore
water and manufactured food can be
transported to all parts of the plant.
 They also have supporting tissue, they have
enough strength and support to allow them to
grow to great lengths.
 They have true roots, stems and leaves.
 Therefore they are not thallus plants.
 They undergo both sexual and asexual
reproduction.
 During sexual reproduction seeds are produced.
 These seeds are found on the cones.
 They do not bear fruit.
 They have spores, but they have both male and
female spores.
 These spores are inside the pollen grain and
ovary.
 They are not dependent on water for
reproduction.
 The male spores are carried to the female cone
by the wind.
 The pollen tube then carries the spores to the
ovary.
 Two generations also occur in these plants.
 The sporophyte generation is dominant.
 The gametophyte generation is separated into a
male gametophyte and a female gametophyte.
 Both the male and female gametophyte
generation occur within the sporophyte.
1. Explain how the gymnosperms are similar to the
pteridophytes.
2. Explain how the gymnosperms are different
from the pteridophytes.
1. Similarities
 They both have xylem and phloem, therefore
they are both vascular plants.
 They both have true roots, stems and leaves,
therefore they are not thallus plants.
 Their sporophyte generation is dominant.

2. Differences
 The gymnosperms are able to produce seeds,
while the pteridophytes do not.
 Thegymnosperm have separate male and female
gametophytes, while the pteridophytes have only
one gametophyte with both the male and female
sex organs on the gametophyte.
 These are terrestrial plants, that occur over a
widespread area.
 They are a very successful group of plants.
 Some of them occur in very dry areas, these are
called xerophytes.
 Other angiosperms are found in areas that have
an abundant water supply, these plants are called
hydrophytes.
 Then finally some of them live in areas of
moderate water supply, such plants are called
mesophytes.
 These plants also have both the sporophyte and
gametophyte generations.
 The sporophyte is the dominant generation.
 Two separate gametophyte generations occur.
 They are the male gametophyte and the female
gametophyte.
 Both these gametophyte generations occur in the
sporophyte generation.
 Lets discuss the sporophyte generation now.
STRUCTURE:
 The sporophyte generation is the flowering
plant.
 It is made up of roots, stems leaves and flowers.
 Two types of roots systems may occur.
 These are the tap root system or the adventitious
root system.
 The tap root system has one main root and
several side roots.
 The tap roots arise from the radicale of the seed.
 They occur in dicotyledonus plants.
 The tap root system
has one main root
and several side
roots.
 The tap roots arise
from the radical of
the seed.
 They occur in
dicotyledonous
plants.
 The adventitious root is
made up of a number of
roots that are more or
less the same size.

There is no main root.
 The adventitious root
arises from any part of
the plant but the
radical.
 They occur in
monocotyledonous
plants.
FUNCTIONS
 Roots have 2 functions.
 They are:

1. They anchor the plant firmly to the ground.

2. They absorb water and mineral salts.
Tabulate two differences between the tap root and
adventitious root system.
 Differences between tap root and adventitious
root system

TAP ROOT ADVENTITIOUS ROOT

Has a single main root No main root. All roots
with side roots. are more or less the
same size
Arises from the radical Arises from any other
of the seed part of the plant, but
not the radical of the
seed
Common in dicot plants Common in monocot
plants
 These stems are erect
structures.
 They are found above
the ground.
 They bear leaves and
flowers.
 The portion of the stem
from which the leaf and
sometimes flowers
arises is called the node.
 The part between two
nodes is called the
internodes.
 These stems have conducting tissue.
 They can also be quite tall and therefore the have
well developed supporting and strengthening
tissue.
 The strengthening tissue maybe collenchyma or
sclerenchyma.

FUNCTION
 The stem holds the flower in a perfect position
for pollination.
 The stem holds the leaves in a perfect position to
receive sunlight.
 The stem also transports water and mineral salts
from the roots to the leaves.
 They also transport manufactured food from the
leaves to all parts of the plant.
 Therefore it has well developed xylem and
phloem.
 Explain how the stem is adapted for its functions.
 It has strengthening and supporting tissue to hold
the leaves and flowers in a perfect position to
receive sunlight and for pollination.
 It has xylem and phloem to transport food and
water throughout the plant.
STRUCTURE:
 The leaves are green
in colour.
 They can be broad
and flat as in the dicot
leaf or long and
narrow in the
monocot leaf.
 Dicot leaves have net
venation while Monocot leaf Dicot leaf
monocot leaves have
parallel venation.
 They arise from the
node of the stem.
 In the dicot plant the
are attached to the
stem by means of a
petiole.
 The monocot leaves
are attached directly
to the stem.
 Therefore they are
called sessile leaves.
 Tabulate differences between monocot and dicot
leaves.
 Differences between monocotyledonous leaves
and dicotyledonous leaves.

Monocot Dicot
1. Leaves broad and 1. Leaves long and
flat narrow.
2. Attached to stem 2. Attached directly to
by the petiole. the stem.
3. Net venation. 3. Parallel venation.
FUNCTION:
 Leaves trap sunlight for photosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis occurs in the leaves.
Explain how the leaf is adapted for its function.
 The broad flat shape of the leaf offers a large
surface area to allow for the maximum absorption
of sunlight.
 Leaves have pigment chlorophyll to trap sunlight
for photosynthesis.
 They have xylem to transport water to the leaf for
photosynthesis.
 They have phloem to transport the manufactured
food to all parts of the plant.
 They have stomata for gaseous exchange.
 They are covered by a cuticle to reduce water loss
by transpiration.
 The flower is the reproductive organ of the plant.
 The male and female gametophyte are found in
the flower.
 The male and female gametes are found within
the male and female gametophyte.
 The dicot flower is
made up of 4 parts.
 These are the calyx,
corolla, androecium
and gynaenium.

Dicot Flower
 In the monocot flower the calyx and corolla is
fused to form the perianth.

Monocot Flower
 All angiosperms have the following
characteristics:
1. They have true roots, stems and leaves.
2. They have vascular tissue.
3. They bear seeds that occur within fruits.
4. They also have separate male and female spores.
5. Male spores are found within the pollen grain
while female spores are found within the ovules.
6. Some spores many need water for spore
dispersal.
7. They do not depend on water for sexual
reproduction.
8. Insects and animals are used as pollinating
agents.
9. They have a dominate sporophyte generation.
10. Separate male and female gametophyte
generations occur within the sporopyhte
generation.
 The land plants progressed in the following areas:
1. Increase in the size of Plants
2. The increasing size of the Sporophyte and the
decreasing size of the Gametophyte.
3. Decreasing Dependence on Water for Sexual
Reproduction.
1. Increase in the size of Plants:
 We started with the bryophytes. They were very
small. This is because they do not have any
conducting tissue, which will be needed to
transport water to all parts of the plant, even if it
very big and tall.
 Then we studied the pteridiophytes, they are much
larger, some of them can even grow into tall trees.
They are able to grow taller than the bryophytes
because they have conducting tissues.
 The gymnosperms and angiosperms are much taller
because they have well developed conducting
tissue that will be able to transport substances to
the tips of the plant.
2. The Increasing size of the Sporophyte and the
Decreasing size of the Gametophyte.
 In bryophytes the gametophyte is the dominant
generation. The sporophyte grows on the
gametophyte and is semi-parasitic on the
gametophyte generation.
 In pteridophytes, the sporophyte is dominant.
The gametophyte generation is separate, and is
very small.
 In the gymnosperm and angiosperm, the
sporophyte generation is dominant. Separate
male and female gametophytes occur. The
gametophytes are enclosed and protected by a
much larger sporophyte generation.

3. Decreasing Dependence on Water for Sexual

Reproduction.
 In both the bryophytes and pteridophytes the
sperms need a film of water in which to swim
and reach the egg and for fertilization to take
place.
 The gymnosperms and angiosperms are not
dependent on water for reproduction.
 Pollen grains are carried from one plant to
another by pollinating agents or the wind.

This process is called pollination.
 Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from
one plant to another.

The pollen tube is responsible for carrying
the sperm to the egg, so that fertilization may
occur.
 The study of the development of land plants
seems to point to the idea that the plants arose
from a common ancestor.
 It also points to evolutionary relationships.
 These evolutionary relationships can be shown by
using special diagrams.
 The diagrams are called phylogenetic trees.
 On example of a phylogenetic tree is a cladogram.
 Your teacher will now show and explain one
example of a cladogram to you.
Phylogentic Trees:


A phylogentic tree shows the
evolutionary relationships amongst
different species.
 It also represents a hypothesis about the
history of a certain group of organisms.
 This history mentioned above is based on a
set of characteristics.
 A phylogentic tree
may look like
either of the
diagrams shown
alongside.
Some phylogentic trees
 Now lets look at
what information
these trees show
us…
Lets start with A.
 A is called the

ancestral
stock.
 It is found at the
base of the
phylogentic tree.
 All the taxonomic
groups on this tree
arose from this
ancestor.

A Phylogentic Tree
Now lets look at B
 B is called the point of
divergence.
 It is the point where a
new species evolved from
the ancestral stock.
 This new species can be
the ancestor of a new
taxonomic group.
 We must remember that
B
the ancestral stock
continues to exist, but it
can undergo evolutionary
change. Ancestral stock
Phylogentic Tree
Now lets move onto C.
 C shows the formation of a 1 2 3
new species.
 This is where C diverges
leading to the formation of
a new species 1 and 2. C
 We can see that the tree also
shows close relationships.
 For example 1 and 2 are
closely related because they
are twigs of the same
branch. Ancestral stock
 While 3 is on a separate
branch therefore not closely
related to 1 and 2. Phylogentic Tree
Finally lets look at
D. 4
 D shows that the
D
ancestral stock
continues to exist
but has undergone
evolutionary
change and
diversified to Ancestral stock
become phylum
4. Phylogentic Tree
 Vascular plants: are those with conducting tissue.
 Non-vascular plants: are those that do not have
conducting tissue.
 Conducting tissue: are tissue that transport water
and mineral salts and manufactured food
throughout the plant.
 Thallus: is a plant that does not have true roots,
stems and leaves.
 Dominant generation: is the one that is alive for
more than one reproductive cycle.
 Genera: is plural of genus
 Extant: means that the organism is not extinct.
 Xerophytes: are plants that occur in very dry
areas.
 Hydrophytes: are plants that are found in areas
that have an abundant water supply.
 Mesophytes: are plants that live in areas of
moderate water supply.
 Radical: is the first root that develops from the
embryo of a plant found within the seed.
 Adventitious root system: a roots system in
which all the roots are more or less the same size.
 Tap root system: made of one main root and
several smaller roots.
 Petiole: is a small stem-like structure that
attaches the leaf to the stem.
 Sessile: these are leaves that are attached
directly to the stem, they do not have petioles.
 Pollination: is the transfer of pollen grains from
one plant to another.
 Phylogenetic trees: are special diagrams that are
used to show evolutionary relationships.
The diagram used to study evolutionary
relationships is called the…
A. Cladogram
B. Gametophyte
C. Sporophyte
D. Prothallus
The dominant generation in mosses is…

A. Cladogram

B. Gametophyte

C. Sporophyte

D. Prothallus
The angiosperms are able to grow so tall because…

A. They have well developed conducting tissue.

B. They use diffusion for transport.

C. They do not have any conducting tissue.

D. They have a very well developed root system.

The plants that are dependent on water for
fertilization is…
A. Ferns
B. Moss
C. Both A and B
D. A only
The plants that are independent of water for
reproduction is…
A. Moss
B. Fern
C. Bryophytes
D. Angiosperms
The gymnosperms do not need water for reproduction
because…
A. They have pollen tube to carry sperms to the egg.
B. Pollen grains are dispersed by wind.
C. They do not bear spores.
D. Both A and B.
The gametophytes are separate and are found
within the sporophytes in…
A. Bryophytes
B. Pteridophytes
C. Gymnosperms
D. None of the above
The calyx and corolla of the monocot plant is fused
to form the…
A. Perianth
B. Petiole
C. Pollen
D. Pollen tube
The petiole is used to attach…

A. The leaf to the stem

B. The flower to the stem

C. The cone to the stem

D. The root to the stem

Leaves that do not have petioles are called…

A. Dominant

B. Sessile

C. Perianth

D. Dicot
The following are a list of characteristics of dicot plants…

A. Sessile, net venation, separate calyx and corolla

B. Sessile, parallel venation, perianth

C. Petiole, net venation, perianth

D. Petiole, net venation, separate calyx and corolla

The following are a list of characteristics of dicot plants…

A. Sessile, net venation, separate calyx and corolla

B. Sessile, parallel venation, perianth

C. Petiole, net venation, perianth

D. Petiole, net venation, separate calyx and corolla

The most successful of all land plants are…

A. Bryophytes

B. Pteridophytes

C. Gymnosperms

D. Angiosperms
Gymnosperms and angiosperms are similar because
they…
A. Are dependent on water for fertilization.
B. Are independent of water for fertilization.
C. Are dependent on water for pollination
D. Are both bryophytes
The bryophytes are called thallus plants because
they…
A. Do not have true roots, stems and leaves.
B. Do not have petioles.
C. Are very tall plants.
D. Need water for fertilization.
The leave arise from the…

A. Nodes

B. Internodes

C. Petioles

D. Auxiliary bud
Plants that are found in areas of abundant water
supply are called…
A. Mesophytes
B. Xerophytes
C. Hydrophytes
D. Terrestrial
Plants that are found in areas of moderate water
supply are called…
A. Mesophytes
B. Xerophytes
C. Hydrophytes
D. Terrestrial
Plants that are found in areas of limited water
supply are called…
A. Mesophytes
B. Xerophytes
C. Hydrophytes
D. Terrestrial
Land plants are called…

A. Mesophytes

B. Xerophytes

C. Aquatic

D. Terrestrial
1. A 11. D
2. B 12. B
3. A 13. D
4. C 14. B
5. D 15. A
6. D 16. A
7. C 17. C
8. A 18. A
9. A 19. B
10. B 20. D