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What are filters?

• Any Frequency Selective LTI System is a
Filter

input Frequency Selective output

signal LTI System signal

Filter

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 Types of filters

• Low Pass Filter

• High Pass Filter
• Band Pass Filter
• Band Stop Filter
• All Pass Filter

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Ideal Low pass filter
|H()|
Pass Band • passes all the frequencies
up to cut-off frequency (c)
with constant gain.
• rejects all frequencies above
to  c completely.
•
- -c 0 c   abrupt transition from pass
band to stop band.

Practical Low pass filter

|H()| • passes all the frequencies
upto cut-off frequency (c).
Smooth Transition
• rejects all frequencies above
 c.
to 
• smooth transition from pass
band to stop band.
- -c 0 c  

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|H()|
Max. gain
Transition
Min. gain

band
Pass- Stop-band
band Min. attenuation
to 

p s 
0

Bands in practical filters

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 Pass Band
|H()| |H()|

1 1

to - to 

 
-c 0 c -2 -0 -1 0 1 0 2

High pass filter Band pass filter

|H()| |H()|

1 1
to -
to - to  to 

 -2 -0 -1 0 1 0 2


0

All pass filter Band stop filter 6

 TYPES OF DIGITAL FILTER :

1. FINITE IMPULSE RESPONSE FILTER

(FIR Filter)

2. INFINITE IMPULSE RESPONSE FILTER

(IIR Filter)

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8
Steps in Digital Filter Design:

Obtaining Specifications of the desired system

Approximating the specifications to a causal discrete

time system

Realization of the discrete time system.

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REALIZATION OF DIGITAL
FILTER
N-1 M-1

y(n)=-  ak y(n-k) + bk x(n-k)

k=1 k=0

This is a difference equation for most practical cases, where x(n) is input, y(n) is output
and y(n-k) is previous output and ak and bk are system coefficients

FIR Filter (All zero or moving average filter): Put a k =0

M-1

y(n)= bk x(n-k)
k=0

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 REALIZATION OF DIGITAL
FILTER
IIR Filter (All pole or autoregressive system): Put b k =0 for K greater equal to 1 and less equal to
M

N-1

y(n)=- bk y(n-k)+ b0x(n)

k=1

IIR Filter (Pole-zero or autoregressive, moving average system):

N-1 M-1

y(n)=-  ak y(n-k) + bk x(n-k)

k=0 k=0

Factor influencing the choice of structures

1. Computational Complexity 2. Memory requirements and 3. Finite-word length effect

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 Realization
Structures of FIR systems:
1. Direct form
2. Cascade form

Structures of IIR systems:

1.Direct form I & direct form II
2. Cascade form
3. Parallel form 12
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 X(z) H(z) Y(z)

Y (z)
H (z) =
X (z)
 Y(z) = X(z) . H(z)
Taking Inverse z-Transform,
y(n) = x(n) * h(n)
From the Convolution Sum,


y(n) k== - x(k) . h(n–k)

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 Finite Impulse Response Systems
-1 M-1 

y(n) =  h(k).x(n–k) +  h(k).x(n–k)

k = - k=0
+  h(k).x(n–k)
k=M

But, Impulse Response is Finite, having length M

-1 M-1 

y(n) =  h(k).x(n–k) +  h(k).x(n–k)

k = - k=0
+  h(k).x(n–k)
k=M

Expanding,

y(n) = h(0).x(n) + h(1).x(n-1) + … + h(M-1).x(n-M+1)

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y(n) = x(n).h(0) + x(n-1) . h(1) + … + x(n-M+1). h(M-1)

+ y(n)
Z-1

+
Z-1
x(n-2) h(2)
+

Z-1

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 Direct Form of FIR filters

H(z) = 1 + 3z -1 + 2z -2
y(n) = x(n) + 3x(n-1) + 2x(n-2)

1
x(n) + y(n)

Z-1

x(n-1) 3
+
Z-1
x(n-2)
2
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 Direct Form FIR Digital Filter
Structures
An FIR filter of order N is characterized by
N+1 coefficients and, in general, require
N+1 multipliers and N two-input adders
Structures in which the multiplier coefficients
are precisely the coefficients of the
transfer function are called direct form
structures
 Direct Form FIR Digital Filter
Structures
A direct form realization of an FIR filter can
be readily developed from the convolution
sum description as indicated below for N =
4
 Direct Form FIR Digital Filter
Structures
 An analysis of this structure yields
y[n]  h[0]x[n]  h[1]x[n  1]  h[2]x[n  2]
 h[3]x[n  3]  h[4]x[n  4]
 which is precisely of the form of the
convolution sum description
 The direct form structure shown on the
previous slide is also known as a tapped
delay line or a transversal filter
 Direct Form FIR Digital Filter
Structures
 The transpose of the direct form structure
shown earlier is indicated below

 Both direct form structures are canonic

with respect to delays
 Cascade Form of FIR filters
M-1

 h(k) . z-k
H(z) = K=0
p

=  Hl(z)
l=1

= H1(z ) . H2(z) . … . Hp(z)

x(n) H1(z) H2(z) Hp(z) y(n)

Second Order System Using Direct Forms

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 Cascade Form of FIR filters
H(z) = H1(z ) . H2(z)

x(n) H1(z) H2(z) y(n)

x(n) + y1(n) x2(n) + y(n)

=y1(n)
Z-1 Z-1

1 2

y1(n) = x(n) + x(n-1) y(n) = x2(n) + 2x2(n-1)

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Cascade Form FIR Digital Filter
Structures
 A higher-order FIR transfer function can
also be realized as a cascade of second-
order FIR sections and possibly a first-
order section
 To this end we express H(z) as
K 1 2
H ( z )  h[0]k 1(1  1k z   2 k z )
 where K  N if N is even, and K  N 1 if
2
N is odd, with 2 K  0 2
Cascade Form FIR Digital Filter
Structures
 A cascade realization for N = 6 is shown
below

 Each second-order section in the above

structure can also be realized in the
transposed direct form
 Polyphase FIR Structures
 The polyphase decomposition of H(z)
leads to a parallel form structure
 To illustrate this approach, consider a
causal FIR transfer function H(z) with N =
8:

H ( z )  h[0]  h[1]z 1  h[2]z  2  h[3]z 3  h[4]z  4

 h[5]z 5  h[6]z 6  h[7]z 7  h[8]z 8

 Polyphase FIR Structures
 H(z) can be expressed as a sum of two
terms, with one term containing the even-
indexed coefficients and the other
containing the odd-indexed coefficients:
2 4 6 8
H ( z )  (h[0]  h[2]z  h[4]z  h[6]z  h[8]z )
 (h[1]z 1  h[3]z 3  h[5]z 5  h[7]z 7 )
2 4 6 8
 ( h[0 ]  h[ 2 ] z  h[ 4 ] z  h[6 ] z  h[8] z )
1 2 4 6
 z ( h[1]  h[3] z  h[5] z  h[7 ] z )
 Polyphase FIR Structures
By using the notation
1 2 3 4
E0 ( z )  h[0]  h[2]z  h[4]z  h[6]z  h[8]z
1 2 3
E1( z )  h[1]  h[3]z  h[5]z  h[7]z

we can express H(z) as

H ( z )  E0 ( z 2 )  z 1E1( z 2 )
 Polyphase FIR Structures
In a similar manner, by grouping the terms in
the original expression for H(z), we can
reexpress it in the form
H ( z )  E0 ( z 3 )  z 1E1( z 3 )  z  2 E2 ( z 3 )
where now
1 2
E0 ( z )  h[0]  h[3]z  h[6]z
E1( z )  h[1]  h[4]z 1  h[7]z  2
1 2
E2 ( z )  h[2]  h[5]z  h[8]z
 Polyphase FIR Structures
 The decomposition of H(z) in the form
2 1 2
H ( z )  E0 ( z )  z E1( z )
 Or
3 1 3 2 3
H ( z )  E0 ( z )  z E1( z )  z E2 ( z )

 is more commonly known as the

polyphase decomposition
 Polyphase FIR Structures
In the general case, an L-branch polyphase
decomposition of an FIR transfer function
of order N is of the form
L 1  m L
H ( z )  m 0 z Em ( z )
Where
( N 1) / L
Em ( z )   h[ Ln  m]z  m
n 0
with h[n]=0 for n > N
 Polyphase FIR Structures
• Figures below show the 4-branch, 3-branch,
and 2-branch polyphase realization of a
transfer function H(z)

• Note: The expression for the polyphase

components are different in each case
 Polyphase FIR Structures
 The subfilters Em ( z L ) in the polyphase
realization of an FIR transfer function are
also FIR filters and can be realized using
any methods described so far

 However, to obtain a canonic realization

of the overall structure, the delays in all
subfilters must be shared
 Polyphase FIR Structures
 Figure below shows a canonic realization
of a length-9 FIR transfer function
obtained using delay sharing
 Linear-Phase FIR Structures
 The symmetry (or antisymmetry) property of a
linear-phase FIR filter can be exploited to
reduce the number of multipliers into almost half
of that in the direct form implementations
 Consider a length-7 Type 1 FIR transfer
function with a symmetric impulse response

1 2 3
H ( z )  h[0]  h[1]z  h[2]z  h[3]z

 h[2]z  4  h[1]z 5  h[0]z 6

 Linear-Phase FIR Structures
Rewriting H(z) in the form
6 1 5
H ( z )  h[0](1  z )  h[1]( z z )
2 4 3
 h[2]( z  z )  h[3]z
we obtain the realization shown below
 Linear-Phase FIR Structures
 A similar decomposition can be applied to
a Type 2 FIR transfer function
 For example, a length-8 Type 2 FIR
transfer function can be expressed as
7 1 6
H ( z )  h[0](1  z )  h[1]( z  z )
 h[2]( z  2  z 5 )  h[3]( z 3  z  4 )
 The corresponding realization is shown
on the next slide
 Linear-Phase FIR Structures

Note: The Type 1 linear-phase structure

for a length-7 FIR filter requires 4
multipliers, whereas a direct form
realization requires 7 multipliers
 Linear-Phase FIR Structures
• Objective - Determination of a realizable
transfer function G(z) approximating a
given frequency response specification is
an important step in the development of a
digital filter
• If an IIR filter is desired, G(z) should be a
stable real rational function
• Digital filter design is the process of
deriving the transfer function G(z)
Example: Direct Form I of IIR filters
1 + 2z -1 + 3z -2
H(z) =
1 – 3z -1 - 4z -2

x(n) H 1(z)
H(z)
2
y(n)

Let H(z) = H1(z) . H2(z)

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 Selection of Filter Type
• The transfer function H(z) meeting the
frequency response specifications should be
a causal transfer function
• For IIR digital filter design, the IIR transfer
1
function is a real rational function of z :
1 2 M
p0  p1z  p2 z    pM z
H ( z)  1 2 N
, M N
d 0  d1z  d2 z  dN z
• H(z) must be a stable transfer function and
must be of lowest order N for reduced
41 computational complexity
 Selection of Filter Type
• For FIR digital filter design, the FIR
transfer function is a polynomial in z 1
with real coefficients:
N
n
H ( z )   h[n] z
n 0

• For reduced computational complexity,

degree N of H(z) must be as small as
possible
• If a linear phase is desired, the filter
coefficients must satisfy the constraint:
42 h[n]   h[ N  n]