BIOLOGY

The Essentials
Third Edition

Mariëlle Hoefnagels

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 UNIT 1: Science, Chemistry, and Cells

Chapter 2

The Chemistry of
Life

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Life “matters”
This dog, the water, and the
air are all forms of matter.
Matter is any material that
takes up space.
The matter that makes up
every object consists of one or
more chemical elements.
An element is a substance
that cannot be broken down
by chemical means into other
substances.

Section 2.1
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 The periodic table lists all known
elements
This abbreviated periodic table shows some of the most
important elements in life.

Figure 2.1
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 The periodic table organizes the
elements
Each box shows one element, including the element’s full name
and the element’s one or two letter symbol.

Figure 2.1
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 The periodic table shows the
properties of the elements
To understand these properties, we first need to learn about
atoms, protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Figure 2.1
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Atoms make up all matter
This is an atom, the smallest piece of an element that retains the
characteristics of the element.

An atom is composed of three smaller particles:

protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Figure 2.2
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Protons, neutrons & electrons are
subatomic particles
Electrons surround the atomic nucleus.
They are very small and move very fast.

Protons and neutrons are close together in the

atomic nucleus, which is the center of the atom.
Figure 2.2
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Subatomic particles are electrically
charged

TABLE 2.1 Types of Particles in an Atom

Particle Charge Mass Location
Electron Negative () 0 Surrounding nucleus
Neutron None 1 Nucleus
Proton Positive () 1 Nucleus

Figure 2.2, Table 2.1

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Ions are charged atoms
Ions are formed when an atom either gains or loses electrons.
The hydrogen ion (H) is positively charged because it has lost an
electron and is left with its one proton.

Figure 2.3
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Protons determine the atomic number
An element’s atomic number indicates how many protons are in
each atom of that element.
Oxygen
has 8
protons.

Figure 2.1
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Protons and neutrons determine the
atomic mass
An atom’s mass number is the total number of protons and
neutrons in its atomic nucleus.

The mass number

of the carbon
atom is 12.

Figure 2.2
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Isotopes are different forms
of the same element
The number of
neutrons may
vary among
atoms of the
same element.

An isotope is any
of these different
forms of the
element.

Figure 2.4
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Isotopes: same atomic number,
different atomic mass
Each isotope of
an element has a
different mass,
because the
number of
neutrons differs.

Carbon isotopes
have a mass of
12, 13, and 14.

Figure 2.4
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Atomic weight is the average mass
Carbon’s atomic weight is close to 12, even though some carbon
isotopes have an atomic mass of 13 and 14. This is because
about 99% of all carbon isotopes have an atomic mass of 12.

Figure 2.1
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Clicker Question #1
The atomic weight of nitrogen is very
near 14, indicating that most nitrogen
atoms have a mass number of 14. How
many neutrons does the average
nitrogen atom have?
A. 0
B. 7
C. 8 7
Nitrogen
D. 14 N
E. Not enough information 14.0067
to determine.

Figure 2.1
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Nadiia Zamedianska/Shutterstock
 Clicker Question #1, Solution
The atomic weight of nitrogen is very
near 14, indicating that most nitrogen
atoms have a mass number of 14. How
many neutrons does the average
nitrogen atom have?

B. 7
7
Nitrogen
N
14.0067

Figure 2.1
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Nadiia Zamedianska/Shutterstock
 2.1 Mastering Concepts

Where in an atom
are protons,
neutrons, and
electrons located?

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Chemical bonds link atoms together
Atoms are organized into
molecules, two or more
chemically joined atoms.

Each of these water molecules

is a compound of two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom.

Compounds are molecules of

two or more elements.

Section 2.2
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Electrons determine chemical bonding
The number and distribution of electrons around an atom
determine whether and how the atom will react with other atoms.

Figure 2.5
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Electrons exist in energy shells
Energy shells, or orbitals, contain the atom’s electrons.
Shells exist at various distances from the atom’s nucleus.
The shell farthest from the nucleus is important for bonding.

Figure 2.5
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Electrons are arranged in pairs
Unpaired electrons form bonds with other atoms.
Atoms are stablest when their outer shells have no vacancies.
Vacancies make the atom less stable and more likely to bond with
other atoms.

Figure 2.5
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Bonding with other atoms fills
vacancies
Carbon (C) has Hydrogen
four vacancies in (H) has one
its outer shell. vacancy.

Figure 2.8
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Atoms without vacancies are stable
When four H-atoms share their electrons
with a C-atom, all five atoms fill their outer
energy shells.

Figure 2.8
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Chemical bonds link atoms into a
molecule
The result is a methane molecule (CH4).
Notice how the outer shells of the atoms
overlap to form this molecule.

Figure 2.8
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Covalent bonds are shared electrons
When atoms share electrons, as
in this methane molecule,
covalent bonds are formed.

Figure 2.8
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Electronegativity measures an atom’s
ability to attract electrons

Atoms with low Atoms with high

electronegativity electronegativity
attract electrons attract electrons
weakly. strongly.

Figure 2.6
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Electronegativity differences
determine chemical bonds

Figures 2.6, 2.8

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Some atoms have similar
electronegativity
Methane is composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Neither atom pulls electrons

much more strongly than the
other.

Jump to long description

Figures 2.6, 2.8
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Atoms with similar electronegativity
form nonpolar covalent bonds

Methane is held together by nonpolar covalent bonds.

Figure 2.8
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Some atoms have different
electronegativity
Water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen atoms.

The oxygen atom pulls

electrons towards itself much
more strongly than the
hydrogen atoms can.

Jump to long description

Figures 2.6, 2.8
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Atoms with different electronegativity
form polar covalent bonds

Water is held together by polar covalent bonds.

Figure 2.8
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Very electronegative atoms can take
electrons

The Cl atom is so much better

at attracting electrons that it
completely pulls an electron
away from the Na atom.

Jump to long description

Figures 2.6, 2.7
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Transfer of electrons forms ions

Ions are charged atoms.

The Cl- ion has one extra
electron. The Na+ ion has one
less electron.

Jump to long description

Figures 2.6, 2.7
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 The attraction between oppositely
charged ions creates ionic bonds

Salt (sodium chloride) is held together by ionic bonds.

Figure 2.7
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Some atoms are partially charged

Since electrons spend more

time near oxygen, the
oxygen atom has a slightly
negative charge.

Since electrons spend less

time near hydrogen,
hydrogen atoms have a slight
positive charge.
Figures 2.8, 2.10
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Partial charge in molecules creates
hydrogen bonds

The slight positive charge on the

hydrogen atom of one water
molecule attracts the slight
negative charge on the oxygen of
an neighboring water molecule.

The result is a hydrogen bond.

Figure 2.10
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Hydrogen bonds give water its
emergent properties

Hydrogen bonds pull

water molecules close to
each other.

They give water a

collection of unique
properties, and they are
very important in protein
and DNA structure.

Figure 2.10
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Clicker Question #2
Nitrogen has three vacancies in its outer
electron shell. What type of bond might
nitrogen form with hydrogen? How many
hydrogen atoms would one nitrogen atom
bind? (You might need to reference the
electronegativity scale in Fig. 2.6.)

A. ionic bond; 1 hydrogen atom

B. ionic bond; 3 hydrogen atoms
C. covalent bond; 1 hydrogen atom
D. covalent bond; 3 hydrogen atoms
E. hydrogen bond; 1 hydrogen atom

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Nadiia Zamedianska/Shutterstock

 Clicker Question #2, Solution
Nitrogen has three vacancies in its outer
electron shell. What type of bond might
nitrogen form with hydrogen? How many
hydrogen atoms would one nitrogen atom
bind? (You might need to reference the
electronegativity scale in Fig. 2.6.)

D. covalent bond; 3 hydrogen atoms

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Nadiia Zamedianska/Shutterstock

 2.2 Mastering Concepts

What is the
relationship
between polar
covalent bonds and
hydrogen bonds?

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Water is essential to life

The hydrogen bonds that

hold water molecules
together give water a
collection of important
unique properties.

These emergent
properties of water make
it essential for all life.

Section 2.3 Figure 2.10

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Water has unique properties
Water is cohesive
Cohesion is the tendency of water molecules to stick to one another.

Cohesion
between
molecules on
the surface of
liquid water give
it high surface
tension.

Figure 2.11
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Herman Eisenbeiss/Science Source
 Water has unique properties
Water is adhesive

Water molecules also

form hydrogen bonds
with other molecules, a
property called adhesion.

Figure 2.12
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Getty Images/flickr RF
 Water has unique properties
Water is cohesive and adhesive

Together, cohesion and

adhesion allow water
molecules to “climb”
from a tree’s roots to its
highest leaves.

Figure 2.12
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Getty Images/flickr RF
 Water has unique properties
Water is an excellent solvent

Water dissolves hydrophilic

(“water-loving”) substances.
• Polar solutes
• Ions

The polarity of water molecules helps

water dissolve most biologically
important molecules, since many of
them are hydrophilic.

Figure 2.13
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Water dissolves salt

The slight negative charge

on water attracts positive
charges (Na+).

The slight positive charge

on water attracts negative
charges (Cl-).

Figure 2.13
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Water has unique properties
Water regulates temperature

Hydrogen bonds make

water resist changes in
temperature.
So, water cools and heats
up very slowly.
This is why coastal regions
have milder temperatures
than landlocked regions and
also how sweating cools the
body.

Figure 2.14
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©QxQ IMAGES/Datacraft/Getty Images RF
 Water has unique properties
Water expands when it freezes
Hydrogen bonds make water
molecules spread out as it
freezes into ice.
This why ice is less dense than
liquid water, and the ice floats to
the top.
In large bodies of water, a top
layer of ice provides insulation
and keeps the rest from freezing
underneath.
Thus, it is possible for aquatic life
to survive the winter.
Figure 2.15
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Water has unique properties
Water participates in chemical reactions
A chemical reaction occurs
when two or more
molecules, the reactants,
exchange their atoms
resulting in different
molecules, the products.

Water participates in life’s

chemical reactions.
• Photosynthesis
• Respiration

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Clicker Question #3
Which property contributes to the high
surface tension of water?

A. Hydrogen bonding
B. Polar covalent bonds
C. Cohesion
D. Polar covalent bonds and cohesion
E. All of the choices are correct.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Nadiia Zamedianska/Shutterstock

 Clicker Question #3, Solution
Which property contributes to the high
surface tension of water?

E. All of the choices are correct.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Nadiia Zamedianska/Shutterstock

 2.3 Mastering Concepts

Differentiate between
hydrophilic and
hydrophobic
molecules.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Cells have an optimum pH

The pH scale is based on the

amount of H+ in a solution.

Most of the chemical reactions in

cells occur around pH 7.

Section 2.4 Figure 2.16

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 pH scale shows the amount of H+ ions
in solutions

Acidic solutions have a low pH

and a high H+ concentration.

Basic solutions have a high pH and

a low H+ concentration. Bases have
more OH- ions than H+ ions.

Figure 2.16
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Organisms balance acids and bases
If an organism strays too far from
its optimal pH, it could die.

Buffer solutions help maintain a

Many constant pH by absorbing or
organisms releasing H+ into a solution.
maintain pH
homeostasis • When pH is too high, buffers
close to pH 7. release H+ ions to lower the pH.
• When pH is too low, buffers
absorb H+ ions to raise the pH.

Figure 2.16
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Clicker Question #4
Which is the most acidic solution?

A. H concentration 102
B. pH 12
C. H concentration 1012
D. OH concentration H concentration.
E. pH 3

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Nadiia Zamedianska/Shutterstock

 Clicker Question #4, Solution
Which is the most acidic solution?

A. H concentration 102

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Nadiia Zamedianska/Shutterstock

 2.4 Mastering Concepts

How do buffer systems

regulate the pH of a
fluid?

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Cells contain four major types of
organic molecules

An organic molecule contains both

carbon and hydrogen. Methane is a
simple organic molecule.

Section 2.5 Figure 2.8

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Organic molecules are made up of
functional groups
Carbon and hydrogen chains
and rings are differentiated by
chemically reactive groups,
such as:
• Hydroxyl
• Carboxyl
• Amino
• Phosphate

Figure 2.17
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Organic molecules are biologically
important
The organic molecules
needed for life’s
processes are categorized
into four main types:
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
• Lipids

Figure 2.30
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Organic molecules are in our food
Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are
common in our diets.
Some are considered “healthy” while
others are associated with obesity, heart
disease, and diabetes.
TABLE 2.4 The Macromolecules of Life: A Summary
Type of Molecule Chemical Structure Function(s)

Carbohydrates
Simple sugars Monosaccharides and disaccharides Provide quick energy
Complex carbohydrates (cellulose, Polysaccharides (polymers of Support cells and organisms (cellulose, chitin);
chitin, starch, glycogen) monosaccharides) store energy (starch, glycogen)
Proteins Polymers of amino acids Carry out nearly all the work of the cell
Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) Polymers of nucleotides Store and use genetic information, and transmit it to
the next generation
Lipids
Triglycerides (fats) Glycerol 3 fatty acids Store energy
Phospholipids Glycerol 2 fatty acids phosphate Form major part of biological membranes
group (see chapter 3)
Steroids Four fused rings, mostly of C and H Stabilize animal membranes; sex hormones

Table 2.4
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Ingram Publishing/Alamy Stock Photo RF
 Organic molecules are made of
monomers
A monomer is a single unit of a carbohydrate, protein, or nucleic
acid. Monomers join to form polymers.

Figure 2.30
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Dehydration synthesis joins
monomers together
Dehydration synthesis is a type of chemical reaction.
To synthesize a polymer, enzymes form bonds between two
monomers.
As part of the reaction, a water molecule is released.

Figure 2.18
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Hydrolysis breaks polymers apart
Hydrolysis is a type of chemical reaction.
To “digest” or break down a polymer, enzymes break bonds
between the monomers.
A water molecule is required for the reaction to occur.

Figure 2.18
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Carbohydrates include simple sugars
and polysaccharides
Monosaccharides are simple sugars; they are the monomers
that make up larger carbohydrates.

Ribose, glucose, and fructose are examples of monosaccharides.

Figure 2.19
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Carbohydrates are synthesized and
broken down
Dehydration synthesis binds two monosaccharides together,
forming a disaccharide. Sucrose is a disaccharide.

Hydrolysis separates disaccharides into monosaccharides.

Figure 2.19
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Polysaccharides are long chains of
carbohydrates

Cellulose: structure
Starch: energy
Glycogen: energy

Figure 2.19
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education (c, cellulose): ©BioPhoto Associates/Science Source; (c, starch):
 Proteins have many different
structures and functions

Proteins are the

“workers” of cells; they
do almost everything.
• Proteins like collagen
create cellular
structures.
• Proteins like actin
and myosin produce
muscle contractions.

Figure 2.22
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Proteins are made of amino acids

The monomers of proteins

are amino acids.

There are 20 different

amino acids in nature.

All amino acids have the

same general structure.

Figure 2.20
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Each amino acid has its own chemical
and physical properties
The 20 different amino acids have 20 different R-groups.
• Some are polar, some are nonpolar, some are charged.
• Some are small, some are medium, some are bulky.

These properties in turn

determine the properties
of the protein.

Figure 2.20
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Proteins are synthesized and broken
down
Dehydration synthesis binds two amino acids together,
forming a dipeptide, shown below. A long chain of amino acids
is called a polypeptide.

Hydrolysis separates dipeptides and polypeptides into individual

amino acids.
Figure 2.20
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Polypeptides fold up into proteins
A chain of amino acids
folds into a unique 3-D
shape to become a
protein.

The function of a protein

depends on its shape, or
tertiary structure.

Denatured proteins lose

their shape.

Protein is functional Protein is nonfunctional

Figure 2.23
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Proteins:
Primary and secondary structure

Figure 2.21
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Proteins:
Tertiary and quaternary structure

Figure 2.21
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Nucleic acids carry genetic information

Nucleic acids include DNA

and RNA.

The primary structure of

each protein in a cell is
determined by the nucleic
acids.

Figure 2.25
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 The monomers of nucleic acids are
nucleotides

There are five

different possible
nitrogenous bases.

The three parts of a nucleotide are a phosphate group, a five-

carbon sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
Figure 2.24
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Different nitrogenous bases are found
in nucleotides
DNA and RNA both incorporate Only DNA Only RNA
adenine, cytosine, and guanine. uses uses
thymine. uracil.

This creates five different types of nucleotides.

Figure 2.24
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Nucleic acids are synthesized and
broken down
Dehydration synthesis binds two nucleotides together,
forming a dipeptide, shown below. DNA and RNA are
long chains of nucleotides.

Hydrolysis separates nucleic acids into individual nucleotides.

Figure 2.24
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Lipids are hydrophobic molecules
All lipids are hydrophobic.

Different groups of lipids

include molecules with
varying structure and
function.

Unlike carbohydrates,
proteins, and nucleic
acids, lipids are NOT built
from chains of monomers.

Figures 2.26, 2.28

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Lipids are divided into different classes

Triglycerides Steroids are another

(fats and oils) class of lipids. They
are energy- have a four-ring
rich. We need structure.
them for long-
term energy
storage.

Figures 2.26, 2.28

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Triglycerides are fats and oils
Triglycerides are formed by covalently attaching three fatty acid
molecules to a glycerol molecule.

Dehydration synthesis
links the fatty acids to the
glycerol, forming a
triglyceride.

Hydrolysis separates fatty

acids from glycerol.

Figure 2.26
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Some fatty acids are saturated

All carbons of a
saturated fatty
acid are bonded
to four other
atoms. This
makes the fatty
acid have a
straight shape.

Figure 2.27
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Some fatty acids are unsaturated

An unsaturated
fatty acid
contains at least
one double bond,
which gives the
fatty acid a bent
shape.

Figure 2.27
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Saturation gives triglycerides different
properties

Bends in the
unsaturated fatty
acids prevent
them from
packing close
together.
Unsaturated fats,
like oils, are
therefore liquids
at room
temperature.

Figure 2.27
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Steroids are a second class of lipids
Steroids are important lipid molecules. Cholesterol regulates the
fluidity of animal cell membranes; it is also used to synthesize
many sex hormones.

Figure 2.28
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Clicker Question #5
Which monomer is incorrectly paired?

A. Protein: monopeptide
B. Carbohydrate: monosaccharide
C. Nucleic acid: nucleotide
D. Lipid: no monomer

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Nadiia Zamedianska/Shutterstock

 Clicker Question #5, Solution
Which monomer is incorrectly paired?

A. Protein: monopeptide

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Nadiia Zamedianska/Shutterstock

 2.5 Mastering Concepts
Chemical warfare in ants:
A tawny crazy ant’s venom detoxifies a fire ant’s venom.

Propose an experiment to test the hypothesis that formic acid’s

low pH denatures the enzymes in fire ant venom.
Figure 2C
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Life depends on chemistry

The properties of the

organic molecules
making up our cells are
determined by their
atoms and chemical
bonds. Without these
molecules, life would
come to a halt.

Figure 2.30
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Appendix of Image
Long Descriptions

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Some atoms have similar electronegativity -
Appendix
water molecule shows an example of atoms with differing
electronegativity
methane molecule shows an example of atoms with differing
electronegativity
right arrow (top) emphasizes the carbon atom in methane
right arrow (bottom) emphasizes the hydrogen atom in methane

Jump to the image

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Some atoms have different electronegativity -
Appendix
water molecule shows an example of atoms with differing
electronegativity
methane molecule shows an example of atoms with differing
electronegativity
right arrow (top) emphasizes the hydrogen atom in water
right arrow (bottom) emphasizes the oxygen atom in water

Jump to the image

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Very electronegative atoms can take electrons -
Appendix
Figure 2.7A, left panel shows arrangements of electrons in the
sodium and chlorine atoms
right arrow (left side) emphasizes the sodium atom's extremely
low electronegativity
right arrow (right side) emphasizes the chlorine atom's
extremely high electronegativity

Jump to the image

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Transfer of electrons forms ions - Appendix

Figure 2.7A, left panel shows transfer of electrons from the

sodium to the chlorine atom
right arrow (left side) emphasizes the sodium atom's extremely
low electronegativity
right arrow (right side) emphasizes the chlorine atom's
extremely high electronegativity

Jump to the image

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education