Research process

The research process begins with a

proposal
 Generic guidelines
• Institutional guidelines are paramount.
• The goal is to get a degree. Two examiners
decide whether you pass or not.
• Avoid being fashionable, solving problems.
• Follow protocol like all before you.
• Choose area/topic rationally and not
emotionally.
• The area/topic should be focussed.
• It is worthwhile in initial stages to have several
topics/areas of study.
• Problem situation should be clear.
• Data gathering should be easy.
• Secondary literature should be readily available.
• Demonstrate mastery of appropriate methods.
• Can be completed in time- usually takes longer
than planned. You have interest in area.
 What is a proposal?
• A plan of how we will deal with an identified
researchable problem.
• It communicates the researchers' intentions.
• Should be clear and unambiguous. No
assumptions should be made when presenting
the research plan.
• Should contain adequate information to
inform and not leave reviewer wanting to find
out more.
 research plan should be:
• Do-able —a realistic plan of action;
• Defendable —be justified on academic
grounds; and
• Bankable/Fundable —could attract supporting
resources.
• (Vithal and Jansen. 1997)
 Steps in writing a research proposal

• 1. Selecting of area of focus and Topic

• 2. Identifying critical questions
• 3. Stating a rationale
• 4. Conducting a literature review
• 5. Locating a theoretical framework
• 6. Preparing a data collection plan
• 7. Planning for data analysis strategy
• 8. Anticipating the report outline
• 9. Dealing with validity and reliability concerns
• 10. Acknowledging the limitations of the research
• (Vithal and Jansen. 1997)
• In the real world of research the steps are not
lineal with one coming logically after the
other.
• Despite the process being iterative it is critical
to be aware of all the important steps at the
outset.
 Selecting a focus

• Can arise from an existing practical public policy

problem or by specified requirements. Research might
also have to fulfil certain requirements for example:
• Contributing to knowledge;
• Demonstration of knowledge;
• Ability to conduct original research;
• (Vithal and Jansen. 1997)
• The area of focus might not be very clear so the need
to read more about the issues of interest.
• Avoid sounding pompous in claims of your
contributions.
 Topic
• The selection of focus leads one to a topic.
• A topic “describes where, in your field and in
the secondary literature, your dissertation
falls” (Hofstee 2006, 13).
• A topic is not the problem to be investigated
but leads to the problem and thesis
statement.
 Problem
• The undesirable situation that the researcher
seeks to generate a solution to.
• Always problematize the ‘problem’.
• Sources of problems:
• Practical public policy problems.
• Individual experiences;
• Previous research findings; and theory.
 Identifying critical questions or
hypothesis
• identify critical questions, which should relate
directly to the problem statement.
• You might also specify a hypothesis that states
the relationship between two or more
variables.
• All questions should be linked logically to each
other.
• Each question should stand alone and should
be clear enough to a non specialist.
 Points to note on questions
• Limit focus to a manageable number of
questions say three at most.
• The questions should be simple and to the
point.
• Questions should relate directly and
exclusively to the statement of problem.
• Ensure that the exact meanings of concepts
under study are clear.
 Rationale

• This is the motivation of the proposal and

should specify:
• How the researcher developed an interest in
the chosen area; and
• why the problem as formulated is worth of
study.
 literature review
• Can be very detailed displaying mastery of the subject or can be
tentative. In all cases literature review should:
• Indicate what other scholars have written about the chosen topic;
• The main approaches, concepts, and theories used by other
researchers on similar issues;
• what methods have been used?
• Whether there is emerging consensus or disagreement among the
scholars;
• Any identified gaps in the existing literature;
• Who are the key contributors?
• Any emerging questions requiring further investigation; and
• the researcher's strategy in addressing the identified gaps.
 How to search for literature

• Identify the anti/thesis framework. The aim is

to identify the evolution of the
discourse/academic debate. Who said what,
when, addressing who and in what context?
Who responded, supported, or opposed and
on what basis? It is important to locate the
seed publications?
• Search for both primary and tertiary
literature.
• Network with libraries-Government
Departments, Archives.
• Journal articles-Books, especially local
publications.
• Seminar and workshop reports.
• Internet for example Google scholar.
• It is crucial to keep sources of all information
for referencing.
 Theoretical framework
• It is useful to identify a relevant theory/
framework that guides the study.
• The theory/framework should be relevant to
the main argument and not for decoration.
• The theory/framework should speak directly
to the research problem.
• Always acknowledge that there are
contending theoretical viewpoints.
 Data collection plan

• You indicate the most appropriate methods that

guide the study.
• In selecting the methods pay attention to what
other researchers have done and the methods
they have used.
• You identify the population and which sampling
techniques to be used and why.
• Sample size should be defended.
• Methods section should not be a mere review of
literature on methods.
 On methods
• The methods should speak to the research
questions directly.
• Different methods will be appropriate for
different research problems.
• Take into account the dis/advatanges of using
each method.
• In some cases it can be useful to use a
combination of methods.
 Planning for data analysis

• The first step is to clean the data. This is to

confirm the entry and identify the obvious errors
e.g. someone weighing 700 kg could have been
70 kg. This might entail confirming the data or
going back for measurement.
• The data should then be put in categories that
are useful. Data can be organized into cases or
themes.
• There is need to make sense of the large
amounts of data through aggregation.
 NB on analysis
• Data analysis does not follow a neat lineal
predetermined path but is often iterative. One
keeps going back and forth.
• You can categorise, go back to question
reformulate it and then hypothesise.
• Computer aided programme such as N-vivo
can be useful when analysing large amounts
of data as they have tremendous capacity to
handle huge volumes.
 Ethical consideration

• Identify the major parties involved and if

there are any ethical issues involved.
• This is particularly mandatory were human
subjects are involved even as respondents to a
questionnaire.
• You should also indicate what measures are
proposed to resolve the ethical problems.
 Provisional report outline
• A thesis or report is a story. As a story it
should hold together.
• A provisional chapter outline gives the reader
an indication of how you intend to tell your
story. A provisional chapter outline is also an
organising tool as well as a useful guide when
undertaking and writing up the research.
• The outline is provisional and is most likely to
change as the study progresses.
 Conventional thesis outline
• The (typical/common/traditional) thesis
outline will vary depending on requirements
of the audience and the institutional rules.
• However, the most common outlines cover
three main sections of preliminaries, main
body, and references.
 Preliminary Section

• Title page (should include full names, affiliation, and

level for thesis)
• Abstract (maximum of one page single spaced. It
summarises the purpose, methods, findings and
conclusions).
• Acknowledgments
• Table of contents (should be consistent with text. This
is best auto-generated by Word)
• List of Figures (titles and page references)
• List of Tables (titles and page references)
 Main Body
• Introduction, statement of problem, research
questions or hypothesis, chapter outline, and
definition of terms.
• Literature review
• Theoretical Framework (not always relevant)
• Methods (including problems encountered)
• Findings and Discussions
• Conclusions (should relate to statement of problem)
• Recommendations (not always necessary)
 References
• Include all and only sources consulted.
• Appendices (if any).
• Annexures (not always necessary).
• Be consistent in the citation method that you
use.
• It is recommended to use some reference
manager. One comes with Microsoft Word
and is handy.
 validity and reliability

• Validity
• How can we know that we are measuring
what we intend to measure?
• Reliability
• How consistent is the tool that we use for
measuring.
 De/limitations
• Every research has limitations and it is the
responsibility of the researcher to
communicate these to the reader.
• Delimitations mark the boundaries of
research. It helps the reader understand what
was covered and what was not covered. It
does not constitute defense of thesis but does
aid it.
Determination of timing and cost
• It is important to know how much the project
will cost given the often limited budget
available.
• Costing is mandatory when seeking financial
assistance.
• Timing is also helpful in monitoring progress
the process and also acts as a guide
throughout the research process.
 Writing the report

• This can be the most difficult and lonely part.

• It should start when the project begins. Writing and
rewriting is an ongoing process until submission.
• For a Masters or a PhD thesis one requires about two
to eight months to work on revisions and
improvements after production of first ‘cover to
cover’.
• Avoid having the report a week before the ‘due’ date
as one forecloses any input from other people
including the academic supervisor.
• Never add anything that surprises your supervisor.
• Check citations as they are usually wrong.
• All written work should be backed up to avoid
disruption due to accidental loses from fire,
system failures, theft etc. It is useful to keep a
copy in separate place or sending latest versions
to your email. A memory stick does not
constitute a backup.
• A hard copy of updated version is also a reliable
backup as thieves might not take that one.
 Relationship with sponsor
• Establish Rapport/Avoid over rapport
• When allocated a sponsor, but you are of the
opinion that it will not be possible to work
with that supervisor, then it might be
appropriate to approach the relevant
authority with facts and request for change. It
is much peaceful to change at that time than
later.
• How do you get assistance from other parties?
• Disagreeing with supervisor? It is always useful to consider
seriously the supervisor’s views – after all they are part of
your team and also want to win.
• Share new information and do not test capacity of
supervisor as they will most likely fail such a test.
• If there is a problem, it is better to present it through the
formal channels or approach a trusted academic elder for
guidance and counseling.
• Reputation of both parties is at stake so there is mutual
interest to work together.
• Present regular (monthly) reports to supervisor.
• The changing roles over supervisors over time, from
friendly sponsor to hostile examiner.
 References
• Babbie E. (2010). The practice of social research.
Wadsworth, Belmont CA.
• Hofstee, E. (2006). Constructing a good
dissertation; A practical guide to finishing a
Masters, MBA or PhD on schedule. Sandton: EPE.
• Vithal R. and J. Jansen. (1997). Designing your
first research proposal, Juta, Lansdown.
• Welman, Kruger, and Mitchell. Research
methodology. Oxford UP, Cape Town