Grade 12 Life Sciences

DNA: Code of Life

By Mrs C. Jacobs
 The Precursor

▪ We knew something inside the nucleus controlled the cell in some way
▪ We even knew that this “something” was passed down from parent to child
▪ We did not know what this structure looked like
▪ Technology developed and we were able to get more information
 Discovery of DNA

▪ James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin in 1953
▪ Determined and described the structure of DNA and recognised it’s
information carrying capabilities
▪ All but Franklin were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962
 The Code

▪ Understanding that DNA was capable of carrying information led us to try and
determine what the information is
▪ The Human Genome Project began in 1990 with universities and private institutions
around the world sequencing all of the DNA in a human cell
▪ At first progress was slow, but technology improved and the project was completed
in April of 2003
 Extracting DNA
▪ Extracting DNA for sequencing is a lengthy and costly exercise requiring specialised
equipment and specially trained scientists to carry out
▪ DNA can be extracted in a way that simply allows you to see it clumped together
with the naked eye
▪ We have done this experiment in class together in the past
Nucleic Acids
▪ Two types found in the cell
▪ Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA)
– Found in the nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts

▪ Ribose Nucleic Acid (RNA)

– Found throughout the cell
Starting with DNA – Get a Glossary Ready
Different Diagram, Same Story
 DNA Described in Words

▪ Double stranded molecule each strand with an alternating pentose deoxyribose

sugar group and a phosphate group backbone and nucleotide bases down the middle
– A single sugar, phosphate and nucleotide base are together known as a single nucleotide

▪ The nucleotide bases are held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary
bases
▪ The double stranded molecule forms a double helix
▪ This is wrapped around proteins (called histones), further wound around itself into
the shape of a chromosome.
A Picture is Less Words
 Complementary Bases
▪ Due to shapes of nucleotide bases and number of hydrogen bonds they form
▪ Each nucleotide base’s shape is only complementary to one other nucleotide base’s
shape (none are self-complementary)
▪ Cytosine (C) ONLY pairs with Guanine (G)
▪ Adenine (A) ONLY pairs with Thymine (T)
 Oh no…
Maths…
“Complicated” Maths Based Questions
▪ You are told the amount/ proportion (%) of one nucleotide in a section of double stranded
DNA and asked to determine the amount/ proportion of a different nucleotide in the same
section.
– E.G. A double stranded section of DNA contains 24% cytosine. Calculate the percentage of adenine in the
same section

▪ Determine the nucleotides for what is complementary to the given nucleotide

– If a section of double strand of DNA contains 24% cytosine nucleotides the same section must also contain
24% guanine
– These account for 48% of the total nucleotides for the section of DNA
 “Complicated” Maths Based Questions
▪ Adenine and Thymine are complementary, these make up the remaining nucleotides
– 100% - 48% = 52%

▪ Divide by two since these must be the same to get how many of each nucleotide
– 52% / 2 = 26% of each
– Section has 26% adenine
 “Complicated” Maths Based Questions
▪ If you are given a question where the number of bases is given as a value use the same
method
▪ E.G. In a section of double stranded DNA comprised of 180 nucleotides there are 42
thymine nucleotides, calculate the number of guanine nucleotides.
▪ Thymine = Adenine = 42
▪ T + A = 42 + 42 = 84
 “Complicated” Maths Based Questions
▪ Cytosine + Guanine = 180-84 = 96
▪ Cytosine = Guanine = 96/2 = 48
▪ Guanine = 48 nucleotides
▪ That’s the most complicated maths we need to do in this section!
YAY!!!
It’s done!!!
 DNA Profiling
▪ Uses the specific enzymes DNA is cut into smaller fragments, the size of fragments
and number of fragments of each size is based on the unique code each person has
▪ The process produces an arrangement of black bars/ bands of varying thicknesses
which appear as a bar code
▪ Barcodes are unique for non-genetically identical people
▪ Barcodes for people who are genetically related are more similar to each other than to
other people
▪ Barcodes are used to
– Identify criminals
– Identify remains
– Identify relatives (genealogy)
– Determine paternity
 How to Compare DNA Barcodes – Crime Scene

• Count the similarities between

the crime scene and each other
sample
• Here you look for highest
number of similarities,
preferably the maximum
possible
• The victim profile is used to
show the crime scene body
fluids/ cells in collected evidence
are not from the victim
Suspect 2 is the person who’s
3 4 6 2 DNA was recovered form the
crime scene
How to Compare DNA Barcodes – Determining Paternity
• Start by eliminating bars the
child has in common with the
mother
• Count how many of the
remaining bars for the
daughter are in common with
each possible father
• The highest number of bars in
common is the most likely
father

Possible father 3 is most likely the

1 1 2 0 father of the daughter, matching all
bars not matched to the mother
DNA Needs to Replicate

▪ During Interphase of the cell cycle inside the nucleus

▪ When a cell is preparing to divide
▪ It makes an identical copy of it’s DNA
▪ So each daughter cell will receive DNA
▪ This process is called DNA Replication
▪ Allows genetically identical cells to be produced by mitosis
DNA Replication Process

ADDITIONAL KEY WORDS:

 Double helix
 Hydrogen bonds break
 Template strands
 Complementary nitrogenous
bases
 New hydrogen bonds
YouTube Link (watch to 2:48)

https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=lSvF5-rBRGQ&ab_channel=FuseSchool-G
lobalEducation
 Now to RNA in General

▪ Has a ribose sugar instead of a deoxyribose sugar in the backbone

▪ Can only form one strand
▪ Cannot have Thymine as a nucleotide base
▪ Has Uracil (U) instead
▪ Uracil is complementary to Adenine
There are 3 types of RNA
▪ Messenger RNA (mRNA)
– Shorter strands
– Formed in nucleus, found there, in cytoplasm and at ribosomes

▪ Transfer RNA (tRNA)

– Medium strands
– Found in cytoplasm and at ribosomes

▪ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

– Longer strands
– Is what ribosomes are made of (so definitely found there)
DNA vs. RNA
Protein Synthesis – An Introduction

▪ The way in which every function in your body is controlled is by various proteins
(often these are enzymes, but not always)
▪ Your body manufactures all of its own proteins using amino acids from digestion
▪ In order to manufacture proteins, cells require instructions for each protein they
need to make
▪ These instructions are found in DNA, where different sections contain specific
codes which are the instructions for specific proteins
▪ These coding sections are called genes
▪ Cells are capable of reading and using genes to put amino acids in the specific order
required for a specific protein
Protein Synthesis – It Begins with Transcription

Transcription Description:
(takes place in the nucleus/ nucleoplasm)
1. DNA unwinds and splits “unzips” with use of enzymes
(helicase)
2. One DNA strand acts as a template for forming mRNA.
3. Free RNA nucleotides attach to complementary bases on
the DNA strand forming mRNA
Groups of three bases (a triplet) on the mRNA is called a
codon
4. The mRNA leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pores
Protein Synthesis – Continues to Translation

Translation Description:
(takes place in the cytoplasm on the ribosome)
mRNA attaches to ribosome made of rRNA
5. Each tRNA brings a specific amino acid to the mRNA.
tRNA has a triplet called an anti-codon complementary to
the mRNA’s codon
6. The amino acids are linked together by a polypeptide
bond by the ribosome to form an amino acid chain.
The ‘empty’ tRNA returns to cytoplasm to find another of
the amino acid it was carrying
The ribosome moves one codon up and steps 5 & 6 repeat
until there is no more mRNA or the process is stopped
 Translation at a closer look

1. 2.

3. 4.
YouTube Link

https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=oefAI2x2CQM&ab_channel=AmoebaSiste
rs
 Protein Synthesis – The Coding Questions
▪ DNA is transcribed to mRNA, which is translated by ribosome and tRNA into an
order of amino acids
▪ Specifically, a codon on the mRNA matches an anti-codon on the tRNA which carries
a particular amino acid
▪ You must be able to take a given sequence and convert it to DNA/ mRNA/ tRNA if
required
▪ Remember the complementary bases
– DNA: C + G, A + T
– RNA: C + G, A + U
Practice Coding Questions

Nucleic Acid Triplet 1 Triplet 2 Triplet 3

DNA (non-coding/ complementary strand) ATG TCG ACT
DNA (coding/ template strand) TAC
1 AGC
4 TGA
7
mRNA (codon) AUG
2 UCG
5 ACU
8
tRNA (anti-codon) UAC
3 AGC
6 UGA
9
 Protein Synthesis – The Amino Acid Questions
▪ There are 64 possible combinations of the 4 bases pairs into anti-codons found on tRNA
(and thusly the corresponding mRNA codons)
▪ There are a total of 20 different amino acids, so there are often several different anti-
codons on tRNA molecules carrying the same amino acids
▪ There are also some tRNA molecules with specific anti-codon codes that do not carry an
amino acid – these are called “STOP” codons/ anti-codons as they stop the process of
translation signalling the end of the creation of the polypeptide chain
▪ There are master tables which show all possible codons/ anti-codons and their
corresponding amino acid, but you are not expected to use the master tables
▪ In tests/ exams you can be given a smaller table containing only a few amino acids and
the sequences which result in them, lets look at an example together
Find the amino acid coded for in the first triplet

▪ A section of DNA has the following base sequence and is read from left to right:
CTA GAG CTG TCG
▪ The table on the right shows some mRNA codons and corresponding amino acids
▪ Note what you are given
– Code given in DNA & mRNA triplets in the table

▪ Convert what you need to based on the question

– DNA: CTA
– mRNA: GAU

▪ Look up the answer on the table

– mRNA: GAU
– Amino acid: Aspartate
Find the amino acid coded for the remaining triplets
▪ A section of DNA has the following base sequence and is read from left to right:
CTA GAG CTG TCG
Triplet X: DNA – mRNA – amino acid
Triplet 1: CTA – GAU – Aspartate
Triplet 2: GAG – CUC – Leucine
Triplet 3: CTG – GAC – Aspartate
Triplet 4: TCG – AGC – Serine
 Less “Complicated” Maths Based Questions
▪ A protein is made up of 66 amino acids. How many of EACH of the following is involved
in the formation of this protein?
▪ Genes
▪ 1 protein = 1 gene
▪ Codons
▪ 66 amino acids = 66 codons
▪ mRNA nucleotides
▪ 66 amino acids X 3 nucleotides each = 198 mRNA nucleotides
It’s more about words and terminology than maths…so learn your glossary and RTQ
 Mutations

▪ Will learn more in chapter 4, is a change in the order/ number of bases on the DNA
▪ Some have no effect on the protein produced as they do not change the order of amino
acids used in creating the polypeptide chain
– These are also known as silent mutations

▪ Any mutations which changes the order of amino acids is likely going to change the
structure (and thusly functioning) of the protein made with the polypeptide chains
produced by translation
▪ A mutation could be where bases have
– Swapped places, called substitution & resulting in NO change to further codons
– Been deleted, called elimination & resulting in a change in ALL subsequent codons
– Been added, called addition & resulting in a change in ALL subsequent codons
 Explain the effect, if any, of a mutation
▪ A section of DNA has the following base sequence and is read from left to right:
CTA GAG CTG TCG
▪ A mutation occurred which resulted in the following base sequence on the DNA molecule:
CTA GAG CTG TCA
▪ Describe the mutation, triplet number and type
– Triplet 4 has had a substitution changing from TCG to TCA

▪ State the amino acid for the triplet before and after the
mutation
– Triplet 4 mRNA was AGC which coded for serine
– Triplet 4 mRNA is now AGU which codes for serine

▪ Describe if this has an effect/ not

– The amino acid coded for has not (has) changed
– The mutation has had no (an) effect on the protein produced
– The protein may no longer function in the body correctly