What is a Fruit

Etymological Definition
• It is a definition that derived from two latin
words;
(i) frui; mean - to enjoy or to have the use and
enjoyment of
(ii) Fructus; mean - use, enjoyment or product
Literal definition
• “Fruit” is defined as - Outcome of, Result of or
Product of.
• In more advanced dictionaries; “the product of
plant growth useful to man or animal”.
 What is a Fruit
Botanical Definition
• Fruit is a mature ovary (gynoecium) that during the
development stages may be associated or united with
other flower parts (Receptacle, calyx, bracts, floral tube
and seeds).

 All cultivated crops for which the useful part is not

roots, stems, leaves, leaf petiole would be fruit crops.

• Do all of these qualify to be termed fruits (fruit crops),

based on their normal uses or purposes they serve to
man?
 What is a Fruit
Horticultural definition
• For many authors, a fruit is something eaten
fresh and out of hand (No need of any elaborate
processing).

• Basing on this; crops such as the carrot or the

Sugarcane and others eaten out of hand= fruits.
The word something dilutes the specificity of
fruit being a plant product.
 What is a Fruit
Practical (Horticultural) definition prefer Is;

A fruit is the reproductive body of a flowering

plant that has an edible more or less sweet
pulp, usually being used as or in a dessert or
sweet course of a meal.

• A fruit crop therefore, is one from which a

more/less succulent reproductive body is
commonly eaten fresh as a dessert or snack.
 What is a Fruit
Therefore;
 Group A = real fruit crops in the horticultural sense,

 Group B = Vegetables or fruit vegetable,

 Group C = Oil seeds / crops,

 Group D = Cereals and

 Group E = Beverage crops.

 Importance of fruits
(a) Importance of Fruits as Food Crops
• Because, they meet dietary needs
i) Nutrition wise(have nutritional values);
 Vitamins and minerals
• Fruits and vegetables are major sources of
vitamins and minerals.
 Energy
• Because they are rich in Carbohydrates and
sugars, eg Breadfruit, Banana and Plantains, Date, fig and
avocado.
 Importance of fruits
 Protein and fats
• Avocado and nuts are rich in proteins and fats.
 Staple food crops
• Used as an important part of the diet and the
daily consumption may exceed 2 kg per head.
• Banana and plantain: Tanzania (in Kilimanjaro,
Kagera, Mbeya and Arusha regions), Southern
Uganda, in Central and West Africa.
• Breadfruit: West Indies and the Sao Tome.
 Importance of fruits
(b) Socio-economic Role of Fruits
 Source of Income
• Fruits are an important source of income ( directly and
indirectly.

• Direct source of income: Even at small scale fruit can

serve for both home consumption and sale.

• Source of National income, as fruits can be exported to

earn foreign exchange.
• Indirect source of income: Provide employment.
 Importance of fruits
 Land tenure security
• Most fruit crops are perennial, live and
produce up to over 30 years.

• Grown, not only for food and sale, but also as

an investment, and as a means to safe guard
their rights to land ownership.
 CLASSIFICATION AND ADAPTATION OF
FRUIT CROPS
3 Agro-climatic classification
Based on type of climatic conditions to which the fruit
crop is adapted (for growth and reproduction)
Climate determines the consistency of annual cropping,
productivity and quality of fruits. E.g. Humid and dry seasons.

Major types of climatic conditions are distinguished:

Tropical,
Subtropical and
Temperate.
 CLASSIFICATION AND ADAPTATION OF FRUIT
Fruit crops can be classified based on several criteria:
i) Botanical classification, ii) Agroclimatic (Horticultural
classification), iii) Anatomical and physiological
classification

i) Botanical classification
• The Botanical classification = Taxonomic classification.

• Taxonomy is the branch of science that attaches names

to plants, basing on their genetic kinship, at different
taxa (= taxon - singl.) levels.
 According to Anatomical (morphological) features
Self supporting
Single = trees
stem
axil,
Woody Non self supporting
= Liana
Several more or
Fruit crop plants less upright
stems
= Shrubs

Self supporting
= Herbs
Non woody

Non self supporting

= Vines

Examples
 According to the life span of the plant (physiology)

Annual; Complete their entire life cycle in a single

growing season. Example is the Melon (if admitted
as fruit according to the definition).

 Biennial or Semi perennials; complete their cycle

in at least 2 growing seasons. Eg. Banana,
Pineapple (based on monocarpic)

 Perennial; Grow year after year, taking many years

to mature
 According to the life span of the plant (physiology)

 Most fruit crops are perennial or at least

biennial (semi-perennial).

 This explains the tendency to disqualify the

melon as a fruit crop

 Most fruit crops are perennial, while all fruit

trees are perennial.
 Agro climatic …..
Tropical fruits
• The tropical region lay between the 2 tropics.

• A sub-region - Equatorial region, lying

between 0o and 10o North and South latitudes.

• Tropical climate is characterized by; the

absence of well-defined seasons, based on
temperature and day length.
 Agro climatic …..
• Seasons are marked by precipitation. Basing
on (absence/presence of rains we can
distinguish 2 seasons; the dry and wet (rainy)
season.
• Rainy / wet season is longer near the equator
(in the equatorial region) than at higher
latitudes.
 Agro climatic …..

• The average temperature In the tropics is 27oC except

at high elevation.
• The warmest month is only a few degrees warmer than
the coldest.
• The difference between the warmest and coldest
month during the year is less than the difference
between day and night.
• Day length varies little throughout the year, and the
longest day does not exceed 13 hours.
 Agro climatic …..
These fruits: -
• Show little response to day length except pineapple
• Are easily destroyed by chilling temperatures (don't
tolerate temperatures below 12OC).
• Are usually evergreen. Do not shade their leaves
periodically.
• The main growth flushes usually occur at the
beginning of the rainy season, followed by bloom.
• A dry season may be necessary for some to initiate
flowering (mango),
• while in others a drought period often induces
quiescence leading to heavy leaf fall (example -
Terminalia catapa).
 Agro climatic …..
Example of tropical fruits
• Banana/ plantain
• Breadfruit
• Jackfruit
• Mango
• Papaya
• Pineapple
These can not be grown outside the true tropical areas.

• Cherimoya
• Guava
• Bilimbi
• Carambola
• Can be grown in frost-free subtropical areas
 Agro climatic …..
Subtropical fruits
• Is the region between the 2 tropics and 40oN and
S.
• The region lying between 30oN - 40oN and S,
referred to as the Mediterranean climate region.
• Temperatures decreases as one goes away from
the equator,
• Therefore; subtropical regions are generally
cooler
• The variations in temperature over the year are
greater than in the tropical regions.
 Agro climatic …..
• The relative length of the day and night changes
with latitude, (The higher the latitude, the longer
the summer days than winter days).
• The subtropics are defined by the isotherms of
10oC for the coldest months.

• Subtropical fruits tolerate cool weather and some

requires chilling temperatures in order to flower.
• However many subtropical fruits can be grown
successfully in the tropics.
 Agro climatic …..
Example of subtropical fruits

• Citrus -Important within the Mediterranean

climate region. (Also grown in the tropics)
• Grapes
• Fig
• Olive
 Agro climatic …..
Temperate fruits
• Temperate regions; high latitude regions above 40oN and
S.
The region characterized by existence of 4 distinct seasons:
• Summer - The hottest and dry season with the longest
days
• Fall or autumn - Characterized by decreasing day length
and temperatures.
• Winter - Have coldest condition (up to freezing), shortest
days and generally wet due to snowfall and rain.
• Spring - The season after winter characterised by
increasing temperature and day length. Is a wet season,
due to rainfall.
 Growth resumes during the spring
 Agro climatic …..
Characteristics of temperate fruit crops:
 Are tolerant to cold temperatures; drop leaves at
fall and resume new growth in spring by flushing
and blooming.
 Fruit maturation occurs during the hot summer.
 Require the chilling effect (of cold winter) in order
to resume growth, initiate flowering and set fruits.
 After breaking dormancy they need hot
temperatures (received in spring and summer) for
vegetative and reproductive growth.
 Temperate fruits are deciduous fruits due to
periodic shedding all their leaves each year.
 Agro climatic …..
Example of temperate fruits
• Apple
• Pear
• Peach
• Plum
• Strawberry
• Kiwi
• Walnut
 Most temperate fruits belong to the Rosaceae
family
 Agro climatic …..
• Temperate fruits can be grown in the tropics in
the highlands (high altitude) areas because;

• Such areas experiences cool weather.

(temperatures decrease with increase in altitude,
as it increases with latitude).
The other topographical features having influence
on temperature is;
• Closeness to large water bodies; has a
moderating effect on temperature in that,
• It eliminates excessive variations, such that
coastal regions remain relatively warmer than
continental regions.
 BIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS APPLIED TO FRUIT PLANTS
AND FRUITS

Sub topics;
A) Structure of fruit plants (Anatomy)
B) Growth and Development
 A) Structure of fruit plants (Anatomy)
Basing on botanical classification, fruit plants
(crops) belong to:
• The division of higher plants (monocots or
dicots).
• These plants have highly evolved bodies bearing
structural and functional specialization.
Differentiation;
The physiological and morphological changes
occurring in cell, tissue, organ and the plant, during
development from meristematic to mature or adult
stage. (Change to a more specialised form and fnx)
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
Morphology; refers to form

Morphogenesis; Process involved in the development of form

• It Is the result of development and differentiation of

tissues and organs.
Internally plants are differentiated into;
• Cells
• Tissues - Meristematic
- Permanent tissue
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
Simple tissues;
- collenchyma
- Sclerenchyma
Complex tissue - Xylem
- Phloem
• Tissue systems

• Organs
Externally the higher plant is differentiated
into organs only.
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
Vegetative organs; Roots, Stems and Leaves

Reproductive organs; flowers, fruits and seeds.

Vegetative organs
i) Roots
The root or root system is inconspicuous. It is the
major component plants, in terms of function
and absolute bulkiness
Accounts for about 50% of the dry weight
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
ii) Root structure
• The initial seedling root (radicle) is the 1o root
and the origin of the plant root system. If forms
the main root (taproot system).

• When the 1o root ceases while the plant is still

young, the root system is taken over by
adventitiously growing roots (fibrous root
system).
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
• Many tap-rooted plants forms an upper network of
fibrous feeder roots.

• Tap root system permits deep and strong anchorage.

• It also improves the absorptive capacity (in the more

fertile upper layers of the soil by feeder roots)

• Decapitating the taproot,(suppress apical dominance)

results to fibrous root system.

• The process is accomplished during transplanting and

by undercutting or root pruning operations.
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
Plants with fibrous root system are shallow rooted
in comparison to tap-rooted plants.

Problems of shallow root system in fruit crops;

i)Plants are more susceptible to drought stress.

ii)Can be easily uprooted by strong wind.
iii)Show quicker response to soil fertility variations
iv)More prone to attacks by soil borne pests and
diseases
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
Functions of the root(s)
i) Anchorage - fixes the plant into the soil.
ii) Plant nutrition - Absorb of water and mineral
nutrients
Structural adaptation of root system to its functions;
• Complex branching and its tip area gives a very
large surface area in contact with the soil.
• Have constantly renewed root hairs (absorption
region)
• The vast network anchors the plant effectively
• The older roots may serve as storage organs
• Roots are centres of nitrate reduction
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
Structure of the Stem
The form; is determined by structure and growth
pattern: Upright shoot (trees), shrubs herbs and
prostrate-branched creeper (liana and vines).
Parts of a stem:
(i)Collar; boundary btn the root system and stem.
Extreme inferior end of the stem.
(ii) Internode; Interval btn nodes or between 2
leaves.
Length of internode decreases progressively
towards the stem apex.
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
iii) Buds (embryonic stems): Are of 3 types;

a) The terminal or apical bud; at apex or terminal end of the

stem.
• It is the origin of primary plant body (shoot +
reproductive structures; arise from apical meristems)
b) Axillary/lateral buds; Originate from the apical meristem,
• Found at the axils of the leaves.
c) Adventitious buds; Develops along the stem (internodal
region) as a result of injury. Enables sprouting of cutback
old stems.
• Originate in callus-tissue of cuttings or near wounds, in
the vascular cambium/vascular cylinder
• The epidermis may produce adventitious buds. As a
result of dedifferentiation.
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
Dedifferentiation; Change of mature tissue to
meristematic tissue
 Buds (on plant) do not continuously become active.
(exhibit arrested growth)
Arrested growth can be due to: -
(i) Dormancy; Non-growth of buds due to internal
physiological factors even under ideal external
condition. (over come by cold treatment/freezing)
(ii)Quiescence; Incapacity of buds growth due to
unfavourable external conditions (temperature,
water and photoperiod/light duration.
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
iii)Correlative inhibition; buds growth prevented
by inhibitory influence of another part of the
plant.
For example: Non-growth of lateral buds due to
terminal shoot growth. Apical dominance.

In their growth buds may produce: -

 Leaves for vegetative buds
 Flowers for flower buds (floral buds)
 Both leaves and flowers for mixed buds.
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
• Buds may be borne singly or several at a leaf
axil.

• When more than one bud is present at a leaf

axil, all but the central or basal buds are called
accessory buds.

• The arrangement or topology of buds on a

stem is dependent on the leaf arrangements
or phyllotaxy.
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
Leaves
• Leaves are the photosynthetic sites
• Can be persistent (evergreen) or Periodically
shed - once each year ( for deciduous fruit crops)
• In certain cases leaves play role in absorption of
water and mineral nutrients.

• In some plants they constitute the bulk of the

plant e.g. Pineapple. Under such cases, growth
and productivity are gauged by # of leaves
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
Reproductive organs
Flowers
• The flower = assemblage of fertile parts (organ)
and sterile parts borne on an axis.
The reproductive parts;
• Stamen (microsporophyll) or androecium
• Carpels (megasporaphylls) or gynoecium
The sterile parts comprise of the perianth (sepals
or Calyx and Petals or Corolla) and the
supporting axis or receptacle
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
Flower types
Flowers can either be Complete or Incomplete
• Complete flowers; (stamens and pistils)=perfect,
bisexual or hermaphroditic flowers.
• Incomplete flowers; lack stamens or pistils.
Monoecious plant; staminate and pistillate
flowers on the same plant, (most fruit plants)
Dioecious plant; Staminate and pistillate flowers
on different plants
Examples; Papaya, Date palm and Kiwi.
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
In some monoecious fruit plants; stamens and
stigmas mature at different times
• Dichogamy; separation of the sexes in time
(reduces the chances of self-pollination)

Types of dichogamy;
• Protandry; stamens mature first and
• Protogymy; stigmas mature first.
A good example of a fruit crop expressing this
characteristic is the Avocado.
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
• Some monoecious plants are self-sterile; occurs
under natural genetic control i.e prevent the
ovules from being fertilized by pollen of the
same plant (or same variety)

• This is observed in certain species of Passiflora

and some orange cultivars, for example,
“Washington navel”.

Inflorescence; Is a cluster of many flowers

 Fruit plant anatomy.....
The Fruit
Botanically; fruit refers to the mature ovary and
other flower parts associated with it such as
receptacle, and remnants of the petals, sepals,
stamens and stylar portions of the pistil.

It also includes any seeds contained in the ovary.

Generally fruits are classified according to the

number of ovaries as; Simple, Aggregate and
Multiple fruits.
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
Simple fruits; Composed single ovary
• The majority of flowering plants have such fruits
• Is a product of a single pistil, which may consist
of one carpel of 2 or more united Carpels

Simple fruits can be distinguished into;

(i) fleshy and

(ii) dry
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
Fleshy fruit: Mature fruits have fleshy ovary wall
(pericarp) composed of large portions of living
succulent parenchyma cells.
Dry fruits: The ovary wall is made up of non-
living sclerenchyma cells with lignified or
suberized walls.
Example of simple fleshy fruits
(a)Berries - When the entire pericarp is fleshy eg.
Grape and Citrus (hesperidium). The rind forms
exocarp + mesocarp, while edible juicy portion
constitutes the endocarp.
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
b)Drupe or stone fruits - Are simple fleshy fruits
with a stony endocarp.
Example:- Peach, plum, mango. The skin is the
exocarp, the fleshy is the mesocarp and the
core enclosing the seed is the endocarp.
c)Pome fruits - simple fleshy fruits in which the
inner portion of the pericarp forms a dry
paper like core; Apple and pear.
Simple dry fruits/nuts Example: -Macadamia,
Walnut, Hazel nut.
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
ii) Aggregate fruits
Derived from a single flower having many pistils
on a common receptacle.
Such types of fruits are composed of several
separate carpels.
Examples, Blackberries, Strawberry, Raspberry,
etc.
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
iii) Multiple fruits
Derived from many separate but closely clustered
flowers.
Such fruits composed of several matured ovaries
each produced in a separate flower.
Example:
Pineapple and
Jackfruit. (END HORT AND GENERAL)
 Fruit plant anatomy.....
The Seed:
• It is considered to be a miniature plant in an
arrested state of development.

Seeds are formed in the fruit (mature ovule).

Structurally develops from the union of gametes
or sex cells.
 B) Growth and Development
Growth; Increase in size by cell division (meresis)
and / or cell enlargement (auxesis).
Development; Change in form and complexity of
an organism or its part from young to maturity.
• Growth is part of development (increase in size
and complexity).
• Soon after germination fruit plant pass through
two (2) main phases:
a) Vegetative phase or vegetative development
b) Reproductive phase
 Growth and Development....
a) Vegetative development/phase
• Under suitable environmental conditions; seed
germination results to a seedling (plant).
• Vegetative phase of growth; Germination to first
flowering.
• During this phase a plant can not be made to
flower, even under suitable environmental
condition.
• Such a plant is said to be juvenile or in the
Juvenile stage.
 Growth and Development....
Juvenility; Is the physiological state of a seedling
/plant during which it cannot be induced to flower.

• The juvenile phase is variable and depends on both

genetic and environmental factors.

Genetic factors; inherent endogenous factors, (varies

among species and cultivars)
Environmental factors; exogenous physico-chemical
factors (determining plant growth rate)
Example; temperature, water, air, light
 Growth and Development....
• Intervention on the growth rate of young plants
can often modify the length of juvenile period.

• For a plant to enter next phase (reproductive

phase); Is supposed to attain a minimum plant
size.

• Therefore; Poor growth will prolong the juvenile

period, whereas optimal growth will shorten the
juvenile period (as it delays plant to attain min size).
 Growth and Development....
• Grafted or self-rooted plants (cuttings) are adult
at the start, hence capable of flowering under
favourable conditions while still small.

• This justifies for the precocious character of

vegetatively propagated plants vs seedling plants

• Juvenile phase; Is characterized by rapid rate of

plant growth in its lifetime.
 Growth and Development....

• During juvenile phase, some plants exhibit

distinct morphological and physiological
features, which disappear or altered at
maturity.

Example: Presence of thorns (Citrus)

Presence of tendrils in grape vines
 Growth and Development....

b) Reproductive Development/phase
• At the end of the juvenile phase, plant becomes
potentially capable of reproduction.

• It is then said to be mature. Maturity is attested

by the formation of flowers.

How does flowering occur?

• Flowering is a result of a wide range of
physiological and morphological events: -
 Growth and Development....

i) Floral induction – This is triggered when plant

attain and perceive conditions required for
floral initiation;
Plant size, environmental conditions
(photoperiodism, thermoperiod, hygrometric
and nutritional status).

ii) Floral / flower initiation

• Transformation of the vegetative stem
primordia (buds) into floral primordia (buds).
 Growth and Development....

• Floral initiation lead to the formation of the first

recognisable but un-differentiated stage of a
developing organ (flower).

• During the stage, important biochemical

changes take place that alter the pattern of
differentiation.
• From producing vegetative parts (leaf and
stem), to one producing reproductive organs
(pistils, stamens and the accessory flower parts)
e.g petals and sepals.
 Growth and Development....
• In most plants, such transformation is
irreversible However in pineapple the process is
reversible.

iii)Cell division – Meiosis: Leading to pollen and

embryo sac development.

iv) Anthesis: The point at which the flower is fully

open. Is the full bloom/flowering stage.
 Growth and Development....

External Factors affecting flowering

i) Nutrition - Initiation of flowering is regulated by
the C/N ratio of the plant.
• Reducing N supply while favouring
photosynthesis will reduce vegetative growth
and promote flowering.
• P and K promote flowering.

ii)Light - Influence flowering through the

photoperiodic responses of plant species.
 Growth and Development....

• Photoperiodism is the developmental response

of plants to day length.
• The response is under the control of pigments
known as the Phytochromes that receive
(register) the photoperiodic message.

Based on plant sensitivity to photoperiodism;

i) Short day plants, need < 12 hours for flowering.
ii) Long day plants need > 12 hours for flowering.
iii) Day neutral plants – insensitive to light duration.
 Growth and Development....

iii) Temperature
• Temperature is important in terms of
adaptability eg. Low temperatures; breaking
dormancy in temperate fruits.
iv) Water:- Drought enhances flowering (i.e Mango)
Mango need at least 2-3 months of dry weather
to flower.
In temperate regions flowering in spring is much
more abundant after a dry summer and fall than
after a wet summer and fall.
 Growth and Development....

Internal factors Regulating flowering

• Flowering is regulated by an endogenous
chemical stimulus
• Some artificial application of g/regulators has
been practically successful
Example:
 Auxin and ethylene-generating cmpd are used for
flower induction in pineapple
 Gibberellins: Used to induce flowering in certain
long day plants.
 Growth and Development....

Pollination, fertilization and Fruit set

Anthesis is usually followed by flower pollination

Pollination: Transfer of pollen (by a pollinator)

from the anther (of the pollinizer) to the stigma.

Pollinator: The agent of pollen transfer (e.g., bees)

Pollinizer: The producer of pollen i.e., the variety

used as a source of pollen for cross-pollination.
 Growth and Development....
 The pollen germinates on landing the stigma and
grows a tube that extends down the style.
Fertilization; The nucleus from the pollen tube
unites with the egg cell in the embryo sac.
Pollination: Transfer of pollen (by a
pollinator) from the anther (of the
pollinizer) to the stigma.

Fertilization; The nucleus from the

pollen tube unites with the egg cell
in the embryo sac
 Growth and Development....

Functions of Pollination in the formation and

development of fruits:

i) Initiation of physiological processes for flower

retention (inhibit abscission) c enable fruit set.
ii)Provide the male gametes for fertilization.

The 2 functions considered separate because;

 Growth and Development....
 Fruit set and growth can be obtained by the use
of dead pollen or growth regulators (e.g., auxin)

• However, dead pollen or auxin will never effect

fertilization.

 Pollination doesn’t ensure fertilization, (May not

germinate, or geminate but fail to reach the
embryo sac/cell to form zygotic embryo.
Therefore; Style or entire flower may be shed to make no fruit set
 Growth and Development....
• In most fruits, pollination is followed by fertilization.
In such case, fruit set is a prerequisite for seed(s)
formation. (esp in Temperate fruits)

• In some plants, pollination stimulus (i.e., pollination

without fertilization) is required for fruit set.

This lead to two phenomena:

i) Parthenocarpy: fruit set and growth without
fertilisation, i.e. Just by pollination or application of
auxin. Leading to seedless fruit.
Examples Banana, Pineapple, some cv of grapes,
 Growth and Development....
Types of parthenocarpic conditions;
a) Fruit set with neither pollination nor fertilization

b)Fruit set after pollination but without

fertilization

c) Fruit set after pollination and fertilization but

the embryo aborts.
 Growth and Development....
ii) Apomixis: Seeds formation without fertilization
of an egg cell.
That is, the embryo is not produced as a result of
meiosis and fertilization, but from a cell(s) in
the embryo sac or surrounding nucellus.

Such a cell(s) does not undergo meiosis but

develops to form a zygote of same genetic
makeup as the female parent (2n).
 Growth and Development....
Types of apomixis
i) Recurrent apomixis; Seed formed directly from
the diploid cell (2n). i.e. of the non-reduced
megaspore mother cell or some cell from the
maternal ovular tissue.
Example - Raspberry () and Apple (Malus spp). Rubus spp

ii) Adventitious embryo /Nucellar embryony/ Nucellar

budding.
Embryos arise from a cell or group of cells either in
the nucellar or in the integument.
 Growth and Development....

It differs from recurrent apomixis in that;

 It develop outside the embryo sac and in

addition to the regular embryo.

Example: Citrus, where we find the normal sexual

embryos and several vegetative embryos.
 Growth and Development....
iii) Non-recurrent apomixis; Embryo arises directly
from the egg nucleus without fertilization.
The resulting embryo will be haploid (n).

iv) Vegetative apomixis - Vegetative buds or

bulbils are produced in the inflorescence instead
of flowers. Ie. In position of flowers.
 Example: Agave spp, Allium spp. (non fruit
crops). It is similar to the formation of bulbils in
pineapple (Ananas comosus) when treated with
chloroflurenol
 Growth and Development....

iii) Related to Apomixis is the phenomenon

referred to as Polyembryony.
Polyembryony, two or more embryos formed
within a single seed.
Usually, it may result from;
a) Nucellar embryony (adventitious embryo in citrus)
b)Development of more than one nucleus within
the embryo sac in addition to the egg nucleus.
c) Cleavage of the pro-embryo at the early
developmental stages.
 Growth and Development....
Fruit Drops
• When pollination is complete and fertilization effected,
• Hormonal stimulation (of developing embryo) prevent
fruit from abscessing and cause the ovary to enlarge
leading to fruit development
• In most plants not all flowers set fruits,
• Natural shedding take up to 95% of fruits and flowers of
large fruited spp while,
• For small fruited spp only 20 - 30% of the flowers and
fruitlets is shade out.
 Growth and Development....
• For example, a single panicle of a mango tree
there are about 6000 flowers, but only 4 or
fewer flowers per panicle will set fruits.

However, limited fruit set, may be desirable

 To reduce competition for food among the many
fruits during growth.
 Hence help on making fruits of reasonable size
• Natural flower/fruit shed, eliminates the need
for artificial fruit thinning (a routine cultural practice
particularly in temperate fruits to maintain fruit size and quality)
 Growth and Development....

There are 2 natural fruit drops in most fruit crops:

i) Shedding after petal fall: heavy for
underdeveloped fruitlets due to lack of flower
fertilisation.
ii)Shedding after fruit set: Occur in 2-3 waves, for
young fruits;
 Competition among the numerous fruits set per
panicle, branch or plant.
 Prevailing environmental conditions (water
status, pests and diseases) have significant
contribution
 Growth and Development....
Fruit growth in size
• After fruit set; its growth is dominated by the
increase in size, as a result of extensive cell
enlargement.

• In some species there is also a period of active

cell division before active cell enlargement.
• In other species there is little or no cell division
beyond what hapen during ovule development
(pre-pollination)
 Growth and Development....

:. Cell size or cell number may be the reason for

the difference in sizes of fruits among varieties
in a species

 Fruit size may also be an influence of the

number and size of intercellular spaces
formed during development.
 Growth and Development....
Fruit ripening
Occurs after completion of growth and attainment
of the final fruit size (maturation).
Ripening is senescence (aging)
In some fruits it is characterised by a sudden rise in
respiration (climacteric)
Others do not exhibit any rise in respiration, (non-
climacteric).
• On ripening, fleshy fruits softens, as a result of
either;
 Growth and Development....
i) Hydrolysis of pectic compounds
ii) Hydrolysis of starch or
iii) Hydrolysis of both starch and pectic
compounds.
• Hydrolysis leads to the formation of soluble
pectin, which loosens the cells from one
another.
• The presence of soluble pectin and hydrolysed
starch increase fruit sugar contents and
decrease in fruit acidity.
 Growth and Development....
• At ripening there is also development of flavour,
as result of the synthesis of volatile substances
(during hydrolysis process).
 Ripening is irreversible.
 To a greater extent ripening is facilitated by
ethylene (aging or ripening hormone)

• Unfortunately the exact physiological action of

ethylene in the ripening process (inducing
flowering), is not well known
 FRUIT CROP ESTABLISHMENT AND CROPPING SYSTEMS

Fruit crops propagation methods

• Plant propagation refers to the controlled
perpetuation of plants.
That is; multiplication of plants with the
preservation of their essential characteristics.
• Main objective; to achieve an increase in
number of plants.
Types of plant propagation methods:
i) Sexual and
ii)Sexual
 Fruit crop establishment and c/systems....
Sexual Propagation
• Is the multiplication of plants through seeds
formed from the union of gametes after
pollination and fertilization.
Consequences of sexual propagation
• Plants are either self pollinated or cross
pollinated plants.
• Self - pollinated plants = have homologous
chromosomes - they are homozygous.
• Cross – pollinate plants = dissimilar pairs of
genes on homologous X’somes- heterozygous.
 Fruit crop establishment and c/systems....

• Sexual reproduction (cross-pollination)

rearranges the genetic factors, don’t breed true
type, but segregate.
Such situation changes the plant phenotype.
• Most of our fruit crops are cross-pollinated.
• They are variable from each other even from the
same generation.
• Seed propagation is common means of
propagation as it is the most practical means of
propagation to many farmers
 Fruit crop establishment and c/systems....

Advantages of propagation through seeds

i) Is the cheapest method: Is an extension of the
natural way :. it is easy to achieve.
ii)Seeds offer a convenient method for storing
plants.
Thus permit planned planting programmes
iii) The seed endows the young plant with power to
overcome initial adverse environment by means
of stored food reserves in the cotyledon(s) and
by having high root/ shoot ratio, at germination.
 Fruit crop establishment and c/systems....
iv) The seed normally possess power to respond
appropriately to the environment by means of
inhibitors and timing devices related to physical
features (moisture, temperature and light).

v)The seed enable starting disease free plants,

particularly plants free from virus, as most virus
diseases are not seed transmitted.
 Fruit crop establishment and c/systems....
Disadvantages of propagation through seeds
i) Genetic segregation in heterozygous plants
except for apomictic seeds and in
polyembryony
ii)Plants issued from seeds take a long time to
reach maturity;

For example: 8 years for Pear, 7 - 8 for most

tropical fruits.
 Fruit crop establishment and c/systems....
Asexual propagation
• Is commonly referred to as vegetative
propagation.
• Involves the regeneration of cells, tissues or
plant parts.
• It is natural in some plants, while in others it is
more or less artificial.
Advantages of vegetative propagation
• Heterozygous material can be perpetuated
without alteration. Preserve genetic X’ristics
 Fruit crop establishment and c/systems....

 Easier and faster than seed propagation (seed

dormancy eliminated and juvenility shortened)
 It is possible to multiply clones with no viable
seeds or which do not produce seeds at all (e.g.
Washington navel orange, Banana, seedless
grapes)
 The phenotypic characteristics of the plant can
be improved. E.g. through grafting
 It is sometimes possible to combine two or more
clones in the same plant by grafting or budding.
 Fruit crop establishment and c/systems....

 Enhances adaptability of clones to edaphic

conditions by use of appropriate rootstocks

Disadvantage of vegetative propagation

 Viruses are easily transmitted through Vgt P
 Many techniques employed tend to produce
plants with weak root system
 Some techniques require skill. Can only be
efficiently achieved by skilled person.
 Fruit crop establishment
Methods of vegetative propagation
a) Utilization of Apomictic seeds
• The significance of apomixis: Citrus spp, Malus
spp (when self –pollinated) and Mango.
• The ability to produce plant cultivars
apomictically is of significant in Horticulture;

 Give seedling plants c are genetically uniform

(Have same seedling cycle as sexual seeds)
 Fruit crop establishment

 Apomictic seedlings produce uniform and

vigorous rootstock.
 Are suitable for screening out pathogens such as
viruses.
• But not suitable because delay production
(onset of bearing) and
• give undesirable growth characteristics
 Fruit crop establishment
b) Use of specialized vegetative structures
i) Stolons/runners - Are specialized aerial stems c
develop from axillary buds. eg. Strawberry
Runners do root easily.
ii)Suckers - are shoots that arise adventitiously
from roots and shoots.
Already rooted or root easily after planting
Example; Raspberry by suckers developing from
horizontal roots.
• Bananas: Different types of suckers arising from the underground corm
or rhizome (Sword suckers, pippers, water suckers and maiden suckers) .
 Fruit crop establishment

Pineapple: Crown - botanically is not a sucker as it

arises from the top of the fruit (apical meristem)

 Slips - develop from the peduncle.

 Happa - formed at the junction of the peduncle
and the stem.
 Aerial suckers - arise from axillary buds on the
above ground part of the stem.
 Underground suckers - develop from axillary
buds on the underground part of the stem.
 Fruit crop establishment
iii) Rhizomes / corms - A corm is the swollen base
of a stem axis, enclosed by dry scale-like
leaves

Corms should not be confused with bulbs.

Corm is a solid stem structure with distinct nodes
and internodes, while
Bulb in predominantly leaf scales
• Example: in banana; corms can be used in
addition to suckers.
 Fruit crop establishment......

c) Artificial induction of adventitious roots or

shoots
Adventitious roots: roots arising from any part
other than the seedling root and its branches
Adventitious buds (and shoots) – Buds/shoots
arising from any plant part other than terminal
and latent buds on stems.
The techniques includes two methods:
(a) Layering / Layerage
(b) Cutting propagation
 Fruit crop establishment......stt

(i) Layering /
Layerage: Is the
practice in which
part of a plant
usually the stem is
induced to grow
roots and or
shoots before
separation from
the parent plant.
 Fruit crop establishment......

(ii) Cutting propagation

• Is a type of vegetative propagation based on

the principle of isolating part of a plant from
the mother plant to regenerate another
individual.
 Fruit crop establishment......

• Types of cuttings; Root, stem, leaf and leaf bud

• For stem cuttings, leaf and leaf-bud cuttings a

new root system must be initiated.
• In root cuttings a new shoot must be initiated,
while
• In leaf cuttings, both roots and shoots must be
initiated.
• Stem cutting are the most commonly used in
fruit plants propagation.
 Fruit crop establishment......

• The ability of stem cuttings to root varies with

plant species, type of stem tissue from which
they are derived and food reserve (CHO).

Stem cuttings are divided into 4 groups

according to the nature of the wood
(lignifications) making the cuttings
1) Hardwood cuttings
• They are highly lignified and taken during
dormant season or from the previous seasons
wood.
 Fruit crop establishment......
Examples of plants, commercially propagated by
hardwood cuttings;
 Pomegranate,
 figs,
 Quince,
 Grapes,
 Olive,
 mulberry,
 goosberry etc
 Fruit crop establishment......
ii) Semi-hard wood
• These are made from wood, broad-leaved
evergreen spp
• These are one season old cuttings
• From the partially matured new shoots of crop
plants e.g. citrus, and olive

Cutting size;
Made 15- 30cm long with leaves retained at the
upper end.
 Fruit crop establishment......
iii) Soft wood cuttings
• They are prepared from soft, succulent, new
growth of deciduous and evergreen plants
 Less than one season cuttings
 They are used with leaves attached
 They are easy and quicker to root but require
special facilities and attention (High RH)
 They are 6.5-12cm long with two or more
buds
 Examples; Apple, Peach, Pear, plums apricot
and cherry
 Fruit crop establishment......
iv) Herbaceous cuttings
• They are made from succulent herbaceous
plant e.g. Opuntia

• They are 4.5-7.5cm long with leaves retained

• They root under the same conditions as

softwood cuttings
 Fruit crop establishment......

2) Root cuttings

Cuttings prepared from root sections;

• Some crops e.g. bread fruit are easily
propagated by root cuttings,
Others; kiwifruit, apple, phlox, fig, blackberry,
raspberry, etc.
 Fruit crop establishment......

(d) Grafting / Graftage

• Is the art of connecting or joining together living

plant parts by means of tissue regeneration such
that they will unite and subsequently grow and
develop as one plant.

• The part of the combination that provides the

root is called the stock, rootstocks or
understock.
 Fruit crop establishment......

• The added piece of shoot constituting the upper

portion of the graft growing to stem of the
grafted plant is called the scion.

• The scion may contain several dormant buds or

may consist of a single but only.
Budding; when the scion consists of a single bud
only
Grafting: when the scion consists of 2 or more
buds
 Fruit crop establishment......

• The graft combination can be made up of more

than two parts;

The middle piece(s) (between stock and the

scion) is referred to as inter-stock(s), body
stock(s) or interpiece(s).
 Fruit crop establishment......

Limits of grafting
• Incompatibility: is the inability of two different
plants, grafted together to form a successful
union and to develop satisfactorily into one
composite plant.
Incompatibility can arise from;
i) Physiological and biochemical differences
between stock and scion due to genetical
differences.
 Grafting is therefore usually possible within a species between
clones and within a clone
 Fruit crop establishment......
• Reciprocal interspecies grafts are not always
successful.
• Species within the genus Citrus can always be
grafted successfully.
• There are rare successful union between plants
in the same family but in different genera
• Members of the genus Citrus and Fortunella graft
successfully.

Successful grafting between plants of different

botanical families is usually impossible.
 Fruit crop establishment......
ii) Diseases; Virus and mycoplasm problems can
also lead to failures in graft union.
Example: tristeza in Citrus
Importance of Grafting and Budding
• Many fruit cultivars selected for their desirable
fruiting qualities do not have suitable root
system.
• Grafting facilitate scion plant adaptation to
otherwise adverse local conditions of soil and
soil borne pests and diseases and control plant
size.
 Fruit crop establishment......
 Can be improve fruit quality (e.g. in citrus)
through the use of certain rootstocks.

 Grafting techniques can be employed to repair

damaged plants.

 Grafting give practical means of changing

cultivars of established plants by top grafting.

 Grafting can facilitate breeding through its

capacity to hasten the reproductive maturation.
 Fruit crop establishment......

e) Tissue culture or in vitro culture

• Refers to the regeneration of plant cells, tissues

or organs on artificial media under aseptic
conditions.

• The method is also known as micropropagation.

 Fruit crop establishment......
a) General considerations
• Most fruit crops are perennial (25 to 50 years).

Fruit production business involves;

 Long-term investment, hence occupation of land

for a long period of time
 Heavy capital expenditure investment
 The time period one has to wait before the first
bearing is relatively long; > 3 years, for most fruit crops.
 Fruit crop establishment......

• Thus it is not a business that one can get into or

out easily.

• Meaning that, it needs careful planning taking

into consideration;
 Prevailing environmental factors and
 Social economic factors

Before establishment of an orchard or going into

the fruit production business.
 Fruit crop establishment......

b) Choice of fruit species / cultivars;

 Prevailing agro climate condition of an area
(climate, soil conditions, pests and diseases)
 According to market demand (nature and size of
the market) and own objectives,
 Type of rootstock to be employed (for
adaptability to environmental conditions)
 Available means or possibilities for pest and
disease control or soil improvements,
 Existing infrastructure (com, storage, ...)
 Fruit crop establishment......
c) Site selection
• Factors to considerations;
 Geographical region
• The suitability of the climate for growth and
productivity of the crop
 Local site factors
i) Accessibility
 An orchard is preferable to be near the homestead in
order to discourage theft and facilitate close
management. Near transport system for produce and
inputs transportation.
 Fruit crops establishment and management
ii) Soil conditions
 Good or adequate soil for orchard establishment

 Deep enough since fruit crops are deep rooted,

 Have appropriate pH (chemical reaction) range.

 Fruit species are specific in the levels of pH at

which they do well.
 Fruit crops establishment and management

• Remember soil reaction can be altered

through the use of certain fertilizers

• For example; Ammonium sulphate to lower

pH
While
• Sodium nitrate, calcium nitrate or lime to raise
the pH.
 Fruit crops establishment and management

 Good water holding capacity or ability to store

and feed the fruit plant with an abundant supply
of water.
 Adequate drainage and be suitable for irrigation.
Pd can restrict root develop, lead to salt
accumulation
 Adequate nutrient supply for optimum plant
growth and high yields. Plant need 16 Nutrient
Elements for optimum growth, development and
high yields.
 Fruit crop establishment......

iii) Exposure or orientation

• Plots directly exposed to wind should as much as
possible be avoided. Otherwise construction of
wind breaks before planting is necessary.

iv) Orchard size

• There should be enough land space to
accommodate the size of intended orchard
 Fruit crop establishment......

PROCEDURES IN ORCHAD ESTABLISHMENT

(1) LAND PREPARATION
i) Land clearing
• Clear off all the vegetation (bush) covering it.
Manually or thru use of machines and It involve;

 Slashing : To remove the herbaceous vegetations

growing under big trees.
 Felling and destumping of the big trees
• At the start of the dry season (for easy drying)
 Fruit crop establishment......
• Then the maximum of stumps should be
destumped whenever possible.

• Sow a cover crop to protect the soil against

erosion by heavy rains.

• Big trees can also be killed by ringing or girdling.

• On heavy soil should be worked on to improve

drainage.
 Fruit crop establishment......

(2) ORCHAD LAYOUT AND SPACING

(a) Layout
• In conventional orchards planting is in regular
patterns of rows and spacing,
While
• For small holder growers planting is irregular
with no distinct rows and defined space
intervals between plants.
 Fruit crop establishment......
(i) Procedures in layout (regular planting patterns)

• First establishing a straight base line (next and

parallel to the boundary of the farm), which can
be constituted of a fence roadway or
neighbouring farmland.

• Then establish lines at right angles to the

baseline at both ends and one or two in the
middle of the plot.
How to establish 30 m
right angles:
Based on the
40m
Pythagoras theorem, 50m
right angles are
easily established
using 3 chains,
ropes or wires with
3: 4: 5 proportions,
for example 30m,
40m, and 50m in
length.
 Fruit crop establishment......

• The 40m long chain/ rope/ wires, will be

stretched along the base line.

• Then the 30m one put at the approximate right

angle to the base line and finally,
• The 50m length piece is laid to close the triangle.

• To make a right angle happen, adjust the at the

point where the 30m and 50m length ropes
meet.
 Fruit crop establishment......
• Thereafter, upright markers (poles) are placed
along the base line and the right angle line for
sighting to extend them.

• Then establish the desired rows and the tree

spacing by using a tape or graduated rope to
mark the proper intervals

• Mark the planting holes using either small

stakes or by placing small amount of lime.
 Fruit crop establishment......

• The use of contour may be necessary in case the

field is on sloping land.

• In such a case, it is more convenient to use

surveyors level and rods using the following
procedures;

• Start the first row at the highest elevation, by

staking out (on the level) such that all points on
the line are at the same elevation.
 Fruit crop establishment......

• In equilateral triangular planting, plants are

staggered in the same way as above, but the
distances between them from all directions are
equal.
• For example: If the Distance between plants = 10.0m,

• Then each takes up 1/2d2 3m2

• = 1/21023m2
• = 1/2 x 100m2 x 1.73 = 86.5 m2 = 116 per ha-1
 Fruit crop establishment......
(iv) Orientation of rows
Direction of plant rows is of less importance in the tropics
but is important in the subtropical and temperate regions.
Why? and how?
• In the tropics the sun is always, almost overhead hence a
potential shedding effect between tree rows is absent.

• In the subtropics and temperate region there is an evident

inclination / movement of the sun North-South, thus rows
need to be preferably in a North-South direction in order to
take maximum advantage of sunlight.
 Fruit crop establishment......

• For sloping land (slope of >4%), the plant rows

are best orientated to follow the direction of the
contour lines.
(b) Holing and Planting
i) Holing
• Make Planting holes in the previous dry season
after field layout.
• When digging the hole, the topsoil is separated
from the subsoil and kept apart
• The topsoil is eventually mixed with manure,
fertilizer and filled at the bottom of hole.
 Fruit crop establishment......
(ii) Planting
• It is preferably done at the beginning of rainy season.
• Set plant in the planting hole such that it become at the
same level with the ground surface as it was in the
nursery
• However, it is recommended to initially set the plant at
about 10 cm higher than the ground level.
• Tamp the soil around the plant roots to avoid air
pockets
• Make adequate watering after planting.
• For area prone to strong winds make a windbreak
 Fruit crops management Practices

3) ORCHARD MANAGEMENT
i) Soil management
• Soil management practices aim at maintaining
and improve soil conditions.
(a) Weed control
• There are different methods of weed control
(i) Clean weeding
• Removal of weeds, c compete with crop plants
for light, water and nutrients through cultivation
practices.
 Fruit crops management Practices

Odds of the method;

 Leads to loss of O.M in the soil,
 Can enhance soil erosion as the soil is left bare
and prone to direct heating and impact of rains.
 Cultivation equipment may cause damage to
plant roots.
 It can lead to development of muddy conditions
during the rainy season, which may affect other
management practices.
 Fruit crops management Practices

(ii) Intercropping with annual crops, cash or food

crops during the early years
 Provide good cover and improve soil
structure.

(iii) Slashing: weeds are simply cut above the soil

surface and left in place.
 The weeds can act as mulch.
 It is less labour demanding and costly
compared to clean weeding
 Fruit crops management Practices

(iv) Chemical weeding; Use of herbicides

 It is expensive to buy but less labour demanding
in application.
 Chemicals need high pre-cautious of their
hazardous effects with respect to poisoning,
phytotoxicity and soil erosion.
(v) Combination of slashing and clean weeding;
 In addition to slashing, the space around the
plant stem to drip line is clean weeded (basin
weeding).
 Fruit crops management Practices
(b) Irrigation
• Irrigation aim to keep soil with readily
available water.
• Fruit plants need regular and planned
irrigation routine.
• Irregular, random, shallow watering leads to;
shallow rooting, water stress and increases
susceptibility to insect and disease damage
Irrigation considerations; soil characteristics
(texture, depth and OM content) and
prevailing weather conditions
 Fruit crops management Practices
• Irrigation should facilitate even distribution of
water on the ground

• The irrigation should be kept within the plant’s

drip line.

• It should be infrequently, slow, and deep

soaking of the root zone.

• This encourages the growth of deep roots

 Fruit crops management Practices
Principal irrigation methods
(i) Gravity; Good for lands with gentle slopes and
smooth topography.
• Includes; flooding, border method, basin
flooding, and furrow irrigation.
 Border method; the whole area is wetted,
 Basin method; basins are constructed around
trees and water is directed to it.
 In the furrow; water is led along 2 sides of each
tree in small shallow channels or furrows.
 Fruit crops management Practices

(ii) High pressure (overhead irrigation)

• Make use of sprinklers and rain guns.

• Water is applied over the plants from above,
imitating the natural rain.
• Need high investment for purchase and
installation of the necessary equipments.
• Need availability of water at high pressure or a
water pumping station.
 Fruit crops management Practices

(iii) Low pressure (drip or trickle irrigation)

• Water is applied under low pressure to the

rooted zone
• It is water economy, and avoids runoffs and
hence reduce the risks of soil erosion.
• Equipment installation costs are lower than for
sprinkler irrigation.
• Therefore considered to be the most appropriate
method of irrigation.
 Fruit crops management Practices

Fertilizer application (Fertilization)

• For efficient use of applied fertilizers, pH of the

soil should be at the proper range for the crop.
• Soil should have adequate O.M, moisture and
good aeration.
• Amount and type of fertilizer to be applied is
determined by soil tests.
 Fruit crops management Practices

Fertilizer application methods

• The best method of fertilizer application is use of
holes with varying depth (15 – 45cm) at an area
of 15cm from the base of the plant towards the
drip line.
• Use of trenches (15 – 30cm deep) within or
outside the leaf drip line.
• The trench method is less favourable b’se it can
lead to root damage particularly for shallow
rooted plants.
 Fruit crops management Practices

Broadcast;
Spreading of fertilizer on the soil surface, 15cm
from the base of the plant to the leaf drip line.
• It is easier and cheaper but least effective

 Fertilizer effect is diluted as it covers a greater

area of the soil.
 Cause superficial root development, them
more susceptible to moisture stress.
 Fruit crops management Practices

Fertigation;
 Fertilizer application through irrigation water
 Soluble materials only should be used.

Foliar application;
 Fertilizer is applied as a dilute spray to the
leaves of the plants.
 It is a common practice in commercial
pineapple production.
 Fruit crops management Practices

Training and pruning

(a) Training; application of physical techniques to
control shape, size and the orientation in space
(or direction of growth) of a plant.
The techniques include:
• Providing support on which plant may naturally
grow (staking, propping, trellising, guying).
• Bending of plants
• Twisting plants or plant parts
• Fastening of plant to a supporting structure.
 Fruit crops management Practices
• In most cases, training is combined with the
judicious removal of plant parts,
• The technique referred to as pruning.

Main objectives of training and pruning

 To limit the size of plants in all senses (height and
diameter of canopy)
 Facilitate plant cultural practices (by limiting size
and form of plants) such as phytosanitary
treatments and harvesting (become easier).
 Fruit crops management Practices
 To open up and re-orient plants for better
aeration and exposure to light (improve fruit
quality)
 To open up plants for better penetration of
chemical and efficacy of phytosanitary practices.
 Destruct hiding / nesting places for pests and
disease causal agents.
 Establish and maintain a proper balance
between vegetative and reproductive growth (By
removal of unreproductive and dead branches)
 Fruit crops management Practices
(b) Pruning Techniques
Three types of pruning:
(i) Frame pruning
• Is done at early stage starting in the nursery
(before transplanting) up to before production.

• Aims at giving a well-balanced structure to a

young tree.
• It consists of selecting 3 to 4 main or scaffold
branches regularly distributed around the trunk.
 Fruit crops management Practices

• For grafted/budded plants: Allow no sprouts to

grow from the budding or grafting point.
• Allow the first main branch at 20 cm above the
budding/grafting point or 50cm from the
ground.
• No branches should develop below the graft
point
• Each of the main branches should be separated
from one another by at least 10 cm.
 Fruit crops management Practices

(ii) Maintenance pruning

• Aims at preserving the status quo/the
characteristics form of the species.

• Involves removal of badly behaving sprouts,

arising from dormant buds on old wood
(water sprouts).
• It also consist of removing dead, diseased
wood and unproductive branches
 Fruit crops establishment and management

(iii) Rejuvenation pruning

• Aim to bring old trees / trees in decline back into
production.
• The tree is severely cut back ensuring that at
least one branch is left (nursing branch) to the
stump.
• The practice stimulates development of dormant
buds.
• The best developing branches are retained,
allowed to sprout and form new plant canopy.
 Fruit crops management Practices
In general, pruning differs with fruit plant species
• Proper pruning require a prior knowledge of the
growth and flowering pattern of a species.

Basic consideration for pruning are as follows:

o Whether flowering is terminal / lateral
o Whether flowering occurs on young / old wood
o Is there a single (one) bud/more per axil (# of buds).
o How does the species react to severe / light
pruning.
 Fruit crops management Practices
Control of diseases and pests
• Methods of disease and pest control include; (i)
legislation, (ii) sanitation, (iii) resistance, (iv)
mechanical, (v) biological, (vi) chemical and (v)
Integrate pest management.

• Integrated pest management (IPM) involves

application of a combination of different (a # of)
methods,
• IPM is the most preferred method for use in pests control
in orchards nowadays.
 Fruit crops management Practices
Harvesting and Post-harvest handling
Harvesting time
• Fruits must be harvested at the right maturity.
Most fruit are harvested when ripe, some fruits
(climacteric) can be harvested before ripeness.

External and internal signs of fruit ripening;

• Fruit attain it’s full (maximum) size,
• Starch is converted into soluble sugars,
• Degreening and / or visibility of other colours
 Fruit crops management Practices

• Flesh softening
• Development of aroma and taste characteristic
of fruit species
• Sharp rise in respiration (climacteric fruits) like
avocado, mango, papaya, banana
• But not in non climacteric fruits (citrus, grape,
guava, pineapple).
 Fruit crops management Practices
Practically fruit harvesting is based on 1 or more of;

i) Number of days after fruit set (banana),

ii) Shape of the transversely cut fruit (banana),
iii) Resistance to pressure (annona, avocado, some mango
varieties),
iv) Change in rind colour (some species and cultivars of
citrus and mango, papaya, pineapple),
v) Ratio between sugars and acids (citrus, pineapple),
vi) Minimum juice volume (citrus).
 Fruit crops management Practices
Harvesting methods
(i) Cutting; Adapted to large and small fruits borne
on an inflorescence (pineapple, banana, litchi,
annona, Jackfruit) and grapes.
(ii) Pulling (and twisting); Citrus, mango.
(iii) Shaking; For small fruits and other fruits when
they are for processing (for immediate processing).
(iv) Collecting from the ground; Nuts and passion fruit.
• Harvesting can greatly influence the economic
yield. Its cost can exceed all other cultural operations
 Fruit crops management Practices

Post-harvest treatments and handling

• Post-harvest treatments and handling of fruits
depend on its destination.
• To a nearby cannery; fruits may not need any
post-harvest treatment besides loading and
unloading.
• Treatments and handling operations for fresh
fruit market differ with market standards.
• In Tanzania, fruits for local market involve only a
minimum of sorting, while
 Fruit crops management Practices
• Fruit for export are usually treated and handled
according to specific standards as demanded by
the specific market.
They normally include:
• Sorting for size and grade,
• Washing and drying,
• Disinfection,
• Packaging according to size and grade in specified type
of containers (wooden boxes or cardboard boxes,
perforated plastic bags or paper bags) of specific weight,
volume or number of fruits per container.
 Fruit crops management Practices
• Labelling: Containers are labelled indicating type
of fruit, origin quantity and grade.

Fruit storage and conservation

• After harvest, fruit after ripening metabolic
processes continues and leads to deterioration,
rotting and therefore spoilage.

• As fruit ripening is irreversible metabolic

processes cannot be stopped but only delayed.
 Fruit crops management Practices

Some of the techniques (for delaying) includes:

• Reduction of temperature immediately after
harvesting
• For most tropical fruits temperature should not
drop below 10oC at a RH of 85 - 90%.
• Packing in sealed polyethylene bags to reduce
respiration,
• Waxing (coating) or application of anti-respirants,
• Addition of ethylene absorbants or ventilate to
evacuate the ethylene produced by the fruits
 Fruit crops management Practices
• Controlled atmosphere storage (O2 is reduced,
21 to 2%, while CO2 is raised from 0.03 - 10%).
• Treatment with growth regulators (GA) growth
retardants (Malic hydrazide) and metabolic
inhibitors (Vitamin K)
• Irradiation, to control contamination and to
inactivate certain enzymatic activities.
• Disinfection by hot water treatment/application
of fungicides to control or avoid contamination
with pathogens, which would cause rotting.
 Fruit crops Cropping systems
Fruit Cropping Systems
• There are three main fruit cropping systems:
(i)Pure stand or sole crop field, also referred to as
orchard (orcharding).

• Fruits of single spices and often of the some

cultivar are grown in an orchard.
• Where different species and cultivars are used,
are grown in separate rows or positions of the
same land area.
 Fruit crops Cropping systems
(ii) Mixed cropping: Fruit crops grown in combination
with other crops.
• Different species and cultivars of fruit crops
intercropped.
• Different fruit species intercropped with non-fruit crops:
(annual and /or perennials).
• It is common with home gardens.

• Contains fruits of different species and cultivars,

vegetables, medicinal herbs, spices, plantation crops,
ornamentals, forest trees for the production of timber
and firewood.
 Fruit crops Cropping systems
• Crops may be organized in lines or randomly
mixed in the field
• To enable good integration (fruit + non fruit
crops) there are several factors to be
considered in intercropping;

(i) The growth habit of species:

• Canopy size characteristic of each species
• Type of root
• Light requirements
 Fruit crops Cropping systems
(ii) Spacing and the general spatial arrangement of
plants
• Adequate space for each plant should be
provided; annuals in between rows and
perennials on the rows.
 Fruit crops Cropping systems

Advantage of intercropping
• Soil is well managed and less compacted due to
more frequent weeding / cultivation
• Fertilizers and irrigation applied benefits both
crops
• Residues of annual crops can be an important
source of O.M to the perennials (fruit crops).
 Fruit crops Cropping systems
Disadvantages of intercropping
 Intercropping can cause plants encroachments
leading to fruit plant roots damage during land
preparation and competition between them
 Interaction in management practices between
intercropped crop plants for example: -
(i) Phytosanitary treatments by obstructing the
passage of equipment / machinery or chemicals
applied may have undesirable effect on the
intercropped plants (at harvest).
 Fruit crops Cropping systems

(ii) There could be some inconveniences when it

becomes necessary to irrigate the
intercropped crop, while the trees need to be
subjected to water (drought) stress, in order
to induce flowering.
 Seminars
• 1. Pawpaw 11.Straw berry/Raspberry
• 2. Passion fruits 12. Guava
• 3. Mango 13. Sweat soap
• 4. Apples 14. Jack fruits
• 5. Orange (Citrus) 15. Bread fruits
• 6. Pineapples 16. Macadamia nuts
• 7. Banana 17. Annona
• 8. Grape vines 18. Grape fruits
• 9. Pears
• 10. Avocado
 Format of the Assignment
• Introduction
• Origin and adaptability
• Botany (Plant structure)
• Botanical classification
• Propagation
• Cultural practices
• Management practices
• Postharvest management
• Market standards and Marketing
• Challenges and future prospects of the crop