Computed Tomography

Equipment

Halima Kabeer
 CT Introduction
• Computed tomography (CT) scan machines uses X-rays, and
radiation detectors coupled with a computer to create cross
sectional image of any part of the body.
• Conventional tomography is called as axial tomography
because plane of image is parallel to long axis of body
resulting in axial & coronal images.
• CT image is a transverse image that is perpendicular to long
axis of body.
• CT image is formed by collection of x-ray photons transmitted
through the patient in different angles by the ct detectors.
• Transmission measurements collected by the CT detectors
are sent to the computer for the processing. Computers uses
mathematical algorithm to reconstruct the image
 Indications

• acute head injury;

• suspected subarachnoid haemorrhage;
• ureteric calculus;
• acute cervical spine trauma where there is a higher than
average likelihood of fracture or dislocation;
• suspected acute appendicitis in a non-pregnant patient
 CT Generations
• First-Generation CT:
• Translate & rotate, pencil beam, single
detector, 5-min
• The data acquisition process is based on
a translate-rotate principle, in which a
pencil x-ray beam and first translate
across the patient to collect transmission
readings. After one translation, the tube
and detector rotate by 1 degree and
translate again to collect readings from a
different direction.
• Original EMI system required 180
translations separated by 1 degree
rotation.
 Second-Generation CT
• Translate & rotate, fan beam,
detector array, 30 sec.
• In second-generation scanners, the
fan beam translates across the
patient to collect a set of
transmission readings. After one
translation, the tube and detector
array rotate by larger increments
and translate again.
• For 10 degree rotational increment,
18 translations will be required for
180 degree image acquisition.
• Fan beam resulted in increased
radiation intensity towards edges.
That is removed by bow tie filter.
 Third-Generation CT
• Rotate & rotate, fan beam, curvilinear
detector array, subsecond imaging time, ring
artifacts.
• Third-generation CT scanners were based on
a fan beam geometry that rotates
continuously around the patient for 360
degrees. The x-ray tube is coupled to a
curved detector array that subtends an arc
of 30 to 40 degrees or greater from the apex
of the fan.
• Curvilinear detector array produces constant
SID resulting in good image reconstruction.
• If any detector in this system fails, resulting
image will have ring artifact.
• Software corrected algorithms can now
remove such artifacts.
 Fourth-Generation CT
• Rotate & Stationary, fan beam,
detector array, sub second imaging
time.
• only x ray tube rotates while
detectors were stationary.
• Because the tube rotated inside the
detector ring, a large ring diameter
(170–180 cm) was needed resulting a
large dose.
• Later, alternate design used a smaller
ring placed closer to the patient, with
the tube rotating outside the ring
• However fourth generations are not
used today.
 Fifth-Generation CT/Electron Beam
Scanner
• 216° arc array of stationary detectors
• An electron stream emitted from the
cathode is focused into a narrow beam
and electronically deflected to impinge
on a small focal spot on an annular
tungsten target anode, from which x-
rays are then produced. The electron
beam (and consequently the focal spot)
is then electronically swept along all (or
part) of the 360° circumference of the
target. Wherever along the annular
target the electron beam impinges, x-
rays are generated and collimated into a
fan beam. With no moving parts, scan
times as short as 10–20 ms became
possible.
• Used for cardiac imaging, high cost, low
image quality
 Imaging System:
• Operating Console
• Gantry
• Detector Array
 Imaging System,Components:
⮚ Operating Console: CT imaging system is equipped with two or
three consoles. One console is used to operate imaging system.
mAs and kVp selection is usually automatic. Mostly operate
above 120 kVp and 200 mAs. Operator can control slice thickness
by adjusting collimation. Another for post processing and
entering information. Another available to physician to view the
images and manipulate contrast or by selecting rows of detector.
Remote workstation is also available to view and manipulate
images.
• All CT systems have computers for controlling data acquisition,
Image reconstruction, Storage of image data and Image display.
Computer must have fast microprocessor/array processors and
primary memory because it determines the reconstruction time
i.e time between end of imaging and appearance of image.
 Gantry
• Gantry includes x-ray tube, detector array, high voltage
generator, patient support couch and mechanical support for
each.
• X-ray Tube: are Rotating anode type. They have More heat
loading and heat dissipation capabilities. MSCT have heat
storage capacity up to 8MHU.
• Typically provided with two focal spot. Smallest of spot size
(0.6mm) to improve spatial resolution.
• X-ray tube failure is principal cause of CT system malfunction.
• Tubes are expected to last for at least 50,000 exposure.
⮚ Patient support couch: is usually made of low Z material such
as carbon fibre, so it does not interfere with imaging. Couch is
motor driven precisely that same tissue is not imaged twice.
 Detector Array
• For proper functioning CT detector must have following
properties:
• Small in order to provide good spatial resolution usually detector
width is about 1.5mm.
• Must have high detection efficiency.
• Must have fast response with negligible afterglow to keep fast
imaging time.
• Must have wide dynamic range.
• Must be stable, noise free response.
Previously, gas filled detectors i.e. ionization chambers were used. Xe
gas with atomic no 54 and K-energy of 35 was used. There DQE
was 60%. Nowadays, solid state detectors (scintillant detectors)
are used. Bismuth germanate, cadmium tungstate are most
common scintillants with DQE around 98%.
 Collimation & Filtration
• Generally in CT total tube filtration is about 6mm.
• In single slice scanner two collimators were used.
• Pre patient collimators were mounted on x-ray tube housing or
adjacent to it. It consist of several sections and determines the
radiation dose.
• Post patient/Pre detector collimators restricts the x-ray beam
viewed by detector array defines the sensitivity profile or slice
thickness, especially if slice thickness is less then width of
detector.
• In multislice scanner, post patient collimation is not used because
full width of detectors in each row is used to form image.
• The cross section of patient is elliptical, therefore intensity on
edges of image is higher. To compensate this bow tie filters
(thinner at edges, thicker from centre) are used.
 Slip-Ring Technology
• Early CT was performed with a pause
Slip Rings
between gantry rotations because high
voltage and data cables pass from gantry.
During pause patient couch was moved
and gantry returns to starting position.
• A slip ring is electromechanical
technology that enables the transmission
of power and electrical signals from a
stationary to a rotating structure. This
transmission of power/data is made
possible through electrical connections
made by stationary brushes pressing
against rotating circular conductors.
• Brushes are made up of silver graphite
alloy.
 Helical Scanning
• In helical CT the X-ray source are attached to a freely
rotating gantry.
• During a scan, the table moves the patient
smoothly through the scanner; the name derives
from the helical path traced out by the X-ray beam.
• It was the development of two technologies that
made helical CT practical: slip rings to transfer
power and data on and off the rotating gantry, and
the switched mode power supply powerful enough
to supply the X-ray tube, but small enough to be
installed on the gantry.
 Multislice Scanners
• Multislice CT scanners are similar in concept to
the helical or spiral CT but there are more than
one detector ring.
• It began with two rings in mid nineties, with a 2
solid state ring model designed and built by
Elscint (Haifa) called CT TWIN, with one second
rotation.
• Later, it was presented 4, 8, 16, 32, 40 and 64
detector rings, with increasing rotation speeds.
• The major benefit of multi-slice CT is the
increased speed of volume coverage. This allows
large volumes to be scanned at the optimal time.
 Multislice Helical Computed Tomography
Principles
• When examination begins, x-ray tube rotates
continuously. While tube is rotating, couch moves
the patient through the plane of rotating x-ray
beam.
• Scanners use solid state detectors with multiple
rows of detectors. With each row having about
800 detectors.
• X-ray tube is energized continuously and image
then can be reconstructed at any desired z-axis
position along the patient.
 Multislice Helical Computed Tomography
Principles
• Width of detectors define the slice
thickness.
• If all detectors rows of detectors is of equal
size than with 16-slice scanner and a
detector of 1.25 mm size, minimum slice
thickness could be 1.25 mm and maximum
20 mm depending upon number of rows of
detector.
• In some systems central rows have half the
size of outer rows that are equally
distributed on either sides.
• Four possible combinations are shown in
this 12 rows of detector. Central 8 are of 1
mm, outer 4 are of 2mm.
• Slices could be 8 x 1mm, 8x 2mm, 4x4mm or
2x 8mm
 Pitch
• Pitch is relationship between patient
couch movement and x-ray beam width.
• Couch movement each360/ Beam width
• Expressed in ration i.e. 0.5:1, 1:1, or 2:1.
• Pitch of 0.5:1 results in overlapping
images and higher radiation dose
whereas 2:1 results in extended imaging
and reduced patient dose.
• In multi-slice imaging, beam width
depends upon no of detectors used
therefore pitch also got changed with no
of detector arrays.
• Usually pitch of 1:1 is used.
• Tissue imaged=Beam width x Pitch x
Imaging time /Gantry rotation time
DATA ACQUISTION

..
 Components
• Generator
• Slip ring Technology
• Cooling System
• X ray Source
• Collimation
• Filtration
• Detectors
• Patient Table
 Generator
• CT generators produce high kV (generally 120–140 kV) to
increase the intensity of the beam, which will increase
the penetrating ability of the x-ray beam and thereby
reduce patient dose.
• Generators produce high voltage and transmit it to the x-
ray tube.
• The power capacity of the generator is listed in kilowatts
(kW).
• The power capacity of the generator determines the
range of exposure techniques (i.e.,kV and mA settings)
available on a particular system.
 Cooling System

• Cooling mechanisms are included in the

gantry. They can take different forms, such as
blowers, filters, or devices that perform oil-to-
air heat exchange. Cooling mechanisms are
important because many imaging components
can be affected by temperature fluctuation.
 X ray Source
• X-ray tubes produce the x-ray photons that
create the CT image.
• Tungsten, with an atomic number of 74, is
often used for the anode target material
because it produces a higher-intensity x-ray
beam. This is because the intensity of x-ray
production is approximately proportional to
the atomic number of the target material.
 CONT..
• CT tubes often contain more than one size of
focal spot; 0.5 and 1.0 mm are common sizes.
• small focal spots in CT tubes produce sharper
images (i.e., better spatial resolution), but
because they concentrate heat onto a smaller
portion of the anode they cannot tolerate as
much heat.
 CONT…
• The way a tube dissipates the heat that is created
during x-ray production is critical. All
manufacturers list generator and tube cooling
capabilities in their product specifications. These
specifications usually list the system generator’s
maximum power in kW.
Key Concept
• Filtering the x-ray beam helps to reduce the
radiation dose to the patient and improves image
quality.
 Collimators
• Collimators restrict the x-ray beam to a specifi
c area, thereby reducing scatter radiation.
Scatter radiation reduces image quality and
increases the radiation dose to the patient.
• Reducing the scatter improves contrast
resolution and decreases patient dose.
Collimators control the slice thickness by
narrowing or widening the x-ray beam.
 Detectors
• As the x-ray beam passes through the patient
it is attenuated to some degree. To create an
x-ray image we must collect information
regarding the degree to which each anatomic
structure attenuated the beam.
• The term detector array is used to describe
the entire collection of detectors included in a
CT system
 CONT..
• Overall detector efficiency is the product of a
number of factors. These are 1) stopping
power of the detector material; 2) scintillator
efficiency (in solid-state types); 3) charge
collection efficiency (in xenon types); 4)
geometric efficiency, defined as the amount of
space occupied by the detector collimator
plates relative to the surface area of the
detector; and 5) scatter rejection.