UNIT 5.

CELL AND
NUCLEAR DIVISION
HAPLOID AND DIPLOID CONDITIONS OF THE CELL
CYCLE

• Is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.
• It involves division of nucleus, and cleavage of cytoplasm and separation of
daughter cells, dividing cells undergo a regular pattern of events called the
cell cycle.
• The cell cycle is the sequence of events which occurs between one cell
division and the next. It has three main stages.
• During cell cycle, chromosomes undergo many changes such as replication,
uncoiling, condensation, pairing, cross over, and separation.
• In humans, for example, the 23 chromosome pairs are homologous chromosomes.
• On the contrary, the chromosomes that contain different genes and do not pair during meiosis
are called as non-homologous chromosomes.
• For example: In the human karyotype, chromosome 1 and chromosome 2 are non-
homologous.
• Chromosomes are of two types: (a) autosomes (b) sex chromosomes. Out of 23 pairs of
chromosomes, one pair of chromosomes is sex chromosome.
• And chromosomes other than sex chromosome are called autosomes.
• The cells that are involved in reproduction are called gametes (Sperm and
eggs).
• The cells that are not involved in gamete formation are called somatic cells
(Muscle cells, liver cells)
• The cells which contain two complete sets (2n) of chromosomes are called
diploid cells.
• These cells are formed by the fusion of two haploid gametes, one comes from the
female parent and the other comes from the male parent.
• For example, all the somatic cells are diploid cells. In contrast, cells that contain
only one complete set (1n) of chromosome are called as haploid cells. Example
is gamete cells in humans.
MITOSIS AND ROLE OF MITOSIS IN LIVING ORGANISMS

• Cell cycle is a cyclical event of cell growth, mitosis, and

cell division.
• The cell cycle basically consists of two phases: Mitotic
Phase and Interphase.
 A. INTERPHASE

• This is the period of synthesis and growth.

• The cell produces many materials required for its own growth and for carrying out functions.
• DNA replication occurs during interphase. It involves three main phases:
G1 phase or first growth phase

S phase or synthesis phase

G2 phase or second growth phase

 G1 PHASE OR FIRST GROWTH PHASE

• Cell is very active.

• Cell growth occurs and carrying out its metabolic functions.
• Production of proteins for DNA synthesis
S PHASE OR SYNTHESIS PHASE:

• DNA replication occurs.

• Protein molecules called histones are synthesized and
cover each DNA strand.
• Each chromosome becomes two sister chromatids.
 G2 PHASE OR SECOND GROWTH PHASE

• The mitochondria divide and the cell continues to grow until mitotic
spindle begins to form.
• Energy stores increase.
• In plants, chloroplasts also divide
• During G2-phase, a cell contains double DNA content, i.e., 1C to 2C
for haploid cells and 2C to 4C for diploid cells.
TIME TAKEN FOR DIFFERENT CELL CYCLES

• The time consumed by each stage in the cell cycle varies from organism to
organism.
• In human beings, one round of cell cycle takes 24 hours.
• The relative time division is:
(a) G1 phase takes about 5-6 hours.
(b) S phase takes about 10-12 hours.
(c) G2 phase takes about 4-6 hours.
(d) M phase takes about less than one hour.
 B. MITOSIS

• Mitosis is one of the phases of cell cycle, which normally last only about less than an hour
• It is a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells. And it is normally followed by cytokinesis
but not always.
• The process of mitosis is basically divided into 5 phases:
 1. Prophase
 2. Prometaphase
 3. Metaphase
 4. Anaphase

 5. Telophase
 1. PROPHASE

• Usually this is the longest phase of mitosis.

• The chromosomes shorten and thicken.
• In animal cells the centrioles move to the poles
of the cell.
• The nucleolus disappears
• Spindle fibres start to form
 2. PROMETAPHASE

• The nuclear envelope breaks down at the end of prophase

• The developing spindle now enters the former nuclear area

• The chromosomes have even become more condense.
• Kinetochores, a specialized multiprotein complex, bind to each
centromere.
• Non-kinetochore microtubules originate from the two opposite poles and
enter into the nuclear area where they overlap in the middle of the spindle
 3. METAPHASE

• The chromosomes move towards the equator of the spindle, attached by

their centromeres to the spindle fibres which are microtubules.
• Spindle fibres have fully formed.
• The centromeres of all chromosomes are lined up along the equator and
divide.
• Sister chromatid from each chromosome, attached to the spindle from
different poles.
 4. ANAPHASE

• This may be divided into early and late. In its early stage the
centromeres split into two and the spindle fibres pull the
daughter centromeres to opposite poles.
• This is an active process and thus requires energy.
• During late anaphase the chromatids reach their destination at
the poles.
 5. TELOPHASE

• The chromatids reach the poles of the cell, uncoil and

lengthen to form chromatin again, losing the ability to be
seen clearly.
• The spindle fibres disintegrate and the centrioles replicate.
• Nuclear membrane and the nucleolus reappear.
• The whole process ends with two identical nuclei formed.
 IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS TO LIVING ORGANISMS

It helps in the maintenance of genetic stability. The production of two daughter nuclei with the
same number and types of chromosomes as the parent cell (genetically identical to their parent
cells) is essential if organisms are to remain the same; an important component in asexually
reproducing plants.
Cell replacement: mitosis is involved in repairing tissues that have been damaged.
Regeneration: some animals are able to regenerate whole part of the body by using mitosis.
Growth: mitosis leads to increase of the number of cells in multicellular organisms, hence it
leads to growth.
Asexual reproduction: mitosis is involved in multiplication of organism which reproduces
asexually.
 OTHER SIGNIFICANCES OF MITOSIS

Cancer:
What is cancer?

•Cancer is a group of diseases caused by a growth disorder of cells.

•It is the result of damage to the genes that regulate mitosis and the cell cycle, which leads to unrestrained
growth of cells.

•As consequence, a groups of abnormal cells, called a tumour, develops and constantly expands in size.

•Cancers can develop in any organ of the body, but are most commonly found in the lungs, prostate (male),
breast and ovaries (female), large intestine, stomach, oesophagus, and pancreas.
 CANCER AND THE GENETIC CONTROL OF CELL DIVISION

•Cell division is controlled by genes. Most cells divide at a fairly

constant rate to ensure that dead or worn out cells are replaced.

•In normal cells, this rate is tightly controlled by two genes:

Proto-oncogenes that stimulate cell division.
Tumour suppressor genes that slow down cell division.
 ROLE OF PROTO-ONCOGENES

•Proto-oncogenes stimulate cell division.

•In normal cells, growth factors attach to a receptor protein on the cell surface membrane and, via relay proteins
in the cytoplasm, switch on the genes necessary for DNA replication. A gene mutation can cause proto-
oncogenes affect cell division in two ways:

 The receptor protein on the cell surface membrane can be permanently activated, so that cell division is
switched on even in the absence of growth factors.

 The oncogene may code for a growth factor that is then produced in excessive amounts, again stimulating
excessive cell division.

• The results is that cells have a shorter interphase, divide too rapidly and a tumour or cancer develops.
 ROLE OF TUMOUR SUPPRESSOR GENES

• A normal tumour suppressor gene will therefore maintain normal rates of cell division and prevent the
formation of tumours-hence its name.
• If a tumour suppressor gene becomes mutated it is inactivated. The mutant cells so formed are usually
structurally and functionally different from normal cells.
 Types of tumour
Most mutated cells die. However, any that survive are capable of making
clones of themselves and forming tumours. not all tumours are harmful
(malignant); some are harmless (benign).
Malignant tumours remain unspecialized.
They grow rapidly and tend to spread to other regions of the body
(metastasis).
 TYPES OF TUMOURS
• Most mutated cells die. However, any that survive are capable of making
clones of themselves and forming tumours.
1. Benign tumour: This is a lump of the abnormal cells that remains at the
original site. Most benign tumours do not cause serious problems and can be
completely removed by surgery
2. Malignant tumour: These are abnormal cells that have become invasive
enough to impair with the functions of one or more organs. An individual with
a malignant tumour is said to have cancer.
• They grow rapidly and tend to spread to other regions of the body (metastasis).
 CAUSES OF CANCER
 Genetic factors
 Carcinogens
 Chemicals such as the polycyclic hydrocarbons include: soot and cigarette smoke.
 Short wavelength radiation, such as X-rays, gamma rays and some ultra-violet rays.
 Age-some cancers, e.g. leukaemia, are found primary in young people. Cancers in later life may result partly from
the accumulated effects of cell damage.
 Environment- exposure to certain types of radiation or chemicals can cause cancer to develop. For example,
breathing in asbestos fibres can cause lung cancer, and sunlight can cause skin cancer.
 Viruses- some cancers have now been shown to have a viral origin.. For example, the papilloma virus
 MEIOSIS

•Meiosis is a type of cell division in which a nucleus divides into four daughter nuclei,
each containing half the chromosome number of the parent nucleus.
•It occurs in all sexually reproducing organisms in which haploid gametes or spores are
produced.
•Meiosis involves two divisions: Meiosis I and II.
CONT’D
 PROPHASE I
• The chromosomes have already duplicated.
• They coil and become shorter and thicker and visible under light microscope.
• The chromosomes pair up. Each pair is called bivalent, and the process of pairing is called synapsis. At this point,
• Each homologous chromosomes pair is visible as a bivalent (tetrad), a tight grouping of two chromosomes.
• Each consisting of two sister chromatids.
• Once the homologous chromosomes are paired up, crossing over occurs. The sites of crossing over are seen as
crisscrossed non-sister chromatids and are called chiasmata (singular: chiasma). Crossing- over is the exchange of
genetic material between non-sister chromatids.
• Crossing-over is the process that can give rise to genetic recombination that result into variation, an important component
in sexually reproducing organisms.
• The chiasma moves down the end of chromatids resulting into separation of exchanging strands.
• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear and allowing spindle fibres to stretch out and enter the nucleus from each
pole to the equator.
 METAPHASE I
• The chromosomes arrange themselves on the equator of the spindle fibres in such a way that the
centromeres of the two homologous chromosomes orient towards opposite poles.
 ANAPHASE I

• chromosomes are separated and pulled to opposite poles.

• The two chromosomes of each bivalent separate and start moving towards
opposite poles of the cell as a result of the action of the spindle. This halves
the chromosome number is still composed of two sister chromatids.
• The cell membrane starts to prepare for its separation at the equator to form
two cells.
• Notice that in anaphase I the sister chromatids remain attached at their
centromeres and move together towards the poles.
 TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

• Spindle fibres disappear and centrioles replicate.

• Nuclear envelopes re-form around each nucleus which now possesses half the
number of chromosomes of the original parent cell (haploid).
• The chromosomes uncoil, lengthen, and become very indistinct.
• The meiotic division of one parent cell produces four daughter cells, each with a
haploid set of chromosomes.
• The four daughter cells are genetically distinct from one another and from the parent
cell.
• No chromosome duplication occurs between meiosis I and meiosis I
 PROPHASE II

• Chromatids shorten and thicken.

• Centrioles move to the opposite poles.
• No pairing of homologous chromosomes
• No formation of chiasmata
• Nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear.
• New spindle fibres appear.
 METAPHASE II

• The chromosomes arrange themselves on the equator of the

spindle fibres.
• Sister chromatids move slightly apart at the centromeres.
 ANAPHASE II

• The centromeres divide, and the spindle fibres

pull the chromatids to opposite poles,
centromeres first.
 TELOPHASE II AND CYTOKINESIS

• Spindle fibres disappear and centrioles replicate.

• Nuclear envelopes re-form around each nucleus which now possesses half the number of chromosomes
of the original parent cell (haploid).
• The chromosomes uncoil, lengthen, and become very indistinct.
• The meiotic division of one parent cell produces four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of
chromosomes.
• The four daughter cells are genetically distinct from one another and from the parent cell.
• No chromosome duplication occurs between meiosis I and meiosis I
 SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS

• Sexual reproduction: The meiosis ensures that the number of chromosomes is halved, so
that when gametes fuse during fertilization, the diploid number of chromosomes is restored
from generation to generation.
• Genetic variability: Meiosis provides opportunities for new combination of genes to occur
in the gametes. This leads to genetic variation in the offspring produced by fusion of the
gametes. Meiosis does this in 2 ways:
• Independent assortment of chromosomes: The orientation of bivalent at the equator of the
spindle in metaphase I is random. The more bivalent they are; the more variation is possible.
• Crossing- over: As a result of chiasmata, crossing over of chromatids occurs between
homologous chromosomes during prophase I; leading to the formation of new combination
of genes.
INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OF CHROMOSOMES
 CROSSING OVER AND RANDOM FERTILIZATION
• During crossing over, DNA segments of the two parents-paternal and maternal are combined into a
single chromosome producing recombinant chromosomes, which are non-identical with their sister
chromatids
• In humans, an average of one to three crossing over events occurs per chromosome pair, depending
on the position of their centromeres and on the size of the chromosome.
• Thus, crossing over is an important event of meiosis that brings genetic variation in sexual life
cycles.
• A part from random fertilization during sexual reproduction also increases genetic variation in
organisms
• During random fertilization, the male gamete and female gamete fuse to form zygote
• The most interesting thing is that this zygote has the possibility of about 70 trillion diploid
combinations.
 NON-DISJUNCTION OF CHROMOSOMES

• Proper separation of chromosomes during meiosis is essential for the normal growth in humans.
• Any set of chromosomes that do not separate properly during meiosis results in improper separation of
chromosomes or non-disjunction,
• Non-disjunction is a condition in which the homologues or sister chromatids fail to separate properly
during meiosis.
• It can lead to the gain or loss of chromosome, a condition called as aneuploidy. Example: Down
syndrome is an autosomal trisomy.
• It is also called as trisomy 21, where non-disjunction results in an embryo with three copies of
chromosome 21 instead of the usual two copies of chromosome 21 (Figure 5.15). It was first discovered
by John Langdon Down. The chance of occurrence is one infant in every 800 live births.
SYMPTOMS OF DOWN SYNDROME OR TRISOMY

• They are short.

• They may also have protruding, furrowed tongues, which causes the mouth to remain
partially open.
• They are mentally retarded.
• They have a prominent epicanthic fold in the corner of each eye;
• typical flat face and round head.
• Usually, there is a wide gap between the first and the second digits on their feet