SENSORS AND

INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION

Prepared by
A.R.SIV ANESH
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Ranganathar Institute of Engineering
and Technology, Coimbatore
 Measurements

• Measurement: Comparison between a

standard and what we want to measure (the
measurand).
• Two quantities are compared the result is
expressed in numerical values.

2
 Basic requirements for a
meaningful measurement
• The standard used for comparison purposes
must be accurately defmed and should be
commonly accepted.
• The apparatus used and the method adopted
must be provable (verifiable).

3
Two major functions of all branch
of engineering
• Design of equipment and processes
• Proper Operation and maintenance of
equipment and processes.

4
 Methods of Measurement
• Direct Methods

• Indirect Methods

5
• DIRECT METHODS : In these met hods , the
unknown quantity (called the measurand ) is
directly compared against a standard.

• INDIRECT METHOD : Measurements by direct

methods are not always possible, feasible
and practicable. In engineering applications
measurement systems are used which require
need of indirect method for measurement
purposes.

6
 Instruments and Measurement
Systems.
• Measure1nent involve use
the instruments as a of
determining
physical quan titie s or variables.
means of

• Because of modular of the

ele1nen ts within it, it is co1nmon to refer
nature
the 1neas uring instrun1ent as a
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM.

7
 Evolution of
Instruments.
a) Mechanical
b) Electrical
c) Electronic Instruments.

• MECHANICAL: These instruments are

very reliable for static and stable
conditions. But their disadvantage is that
they are unable to respond rapidly to
1neasurements of dynamic and transient
conditions.
8
 Contd
• ELECTRICAL: It is faster than mechanical,
indicating the output are rapid than mechanical
methods. But it depends on the mechanical
movement of the meters. The response is 0.5 to
24 seconds.

• ELECTRONIC: It is more reliable than other

system. It uses se1niconductor devices and weak
signal can also be detected.

9
 Classification Of
• Instruments
Absolute Instruments.
• Secondary Instruments.
ABSOLUTE: These instruments give the
magnitude if the quantity under
measure1nent tenns of physical constants
of the instrument.
SECONDARY: These instruments are
calibrated by the co1nparison with absolute
instruments which have already been
calibrated.

10
 Further its classified as
• Deflection Type Instruments

• Null Type Instruments.

11
• Functions of instnunent and measuring
system can be classified into three.
They are:
i) Indicating function.
ii) Recording function.
iii) Controlling function.
• Application of measurement systems
are:
i) Monitoring of process and
operation.
ii) Control of processes and operation. 12
 Types Of Instrumentation
System

• Intelligent Instrumentation (data has been

refmed for the purpose of presentation )
• Dumb Instrumentation (data must be
processed by the observer)

13
 Elements of Generalized
Measurement System
• Pru.nary sensing element.
• Variable conversion element.
• Data presentation element.
• PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT: The
quantity under measure1nent makes its first
contact with the pri1nary sensing element of
a measurement system.
• VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT: It
converts the output of the prunary sensing
element into suitable form to preserve the
information content of the original signal.
14
 Contd..
• DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT: The
information about the quantity under
measurement has to be conveyed to the
personnel handling the instrument or the
system for n1onitoring, control or analysis
purpose.

15
 Functional Elements of an
Instrumentation System

- -
PR IMARY ,V O tl AIIU : ,V O tl AIII . & D AT A l>A1 '
()11.\S"n n • c o ;,,;v& R M A,.' 11'UL.\ TI · T RANSMISSIO A ,t:. T A
l'R
l08L
Mf'..\.:.n: u ;
SENSING
-SION _. ONE1:. £ M '\,- ._'1 P.:LEMEl\"T f-, -
ELEMENT n r_, 1r.NT· 1:-1.D lf. T
ll nos

'--_ _o_,·_11 i\_c _(_>_No_'_1 -_r 10 _NI-N'C EL_E· _ .,J L _j

_1 E_·1_--r_ _ _ _ _
V 1' ERM lN
DET ECTO R INT E R M EDIAT F. ST1\ G ATING
T RAN SDUC E STAGE
ER
STAGE

16
SENSORS &
TRANSDUCER

17
 DEFINITION
• SENSOR • TRANSDUCER
I. It is defined as an element 1. It is defined as
which produces signal an element when
relating to the quantity pbysi?al
subjected to change
being 1n eas ur ed experiences
son1e
2. se nsor can be defined as "A change ora an ele related
device which provides a which converts a specified
ment
usable output in response measured into a usable
to a specified 1n easured." output by using a
transduction principle.
2. It can also be defined as a
device that converts a
signal frotn one form of
energy to another form.

18
 TYPE OF SENSORS
AND ITS
APPLICATION
• IN MECHATRONICS SYSTEM - b 1 SPLA C EM E N
WE NEED TO MEASURE T
THE _ TEMPERATURE
-
FOLLOWING PRESSURE
PHYSICAL - STRESS
QUANTITIES
- POSITION A N D
PROXIMITY
- SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
- VELOCITY
ARE THE KEY ELEMENT - MOT I ON
USED FOR THE
MEASUREMENT OF THE
- FORCE
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES - L I Q U I D FLOW
- L I Q U I D LEVEL
- LIGHT
SENSORS
19
• SENSORS
- ELEMENT IN A MEASUREMENT SYSTEM THAT ACQUIRES A PHYSICAL
PARAMETER AND CHANGES INTO A SIGNAL(ALSO CAN BE DEFINED AS
PART OF A TRANSDUCER WHICH SENSES OR RESPOND TO A
PHYSICAL QUANTITY OR MEASURAND

SENSOR NORMALLY SENSES THE FOLLOWING PHYSICAL

QUANTITIES
• POSITION
- FORCES
- DISTANCE
- STRAIN
-VIBRATION
- TEMPERATURE
- ACCELERATION ETC.
EXAMPLE OF SENSOR- A THERMOCOUPLE SENSES THE
CHANGE IN
TEMPERATURE

20
 • TRANSDUCER
- CONVERTS ENERGY FROM ONE FORM
TO ANOTHER TEMPERATURE, STRAIN ··· - ···-
ELECTRICAL EN ERGY
EXAMPLE- ACCELEROMETER GIVES OUTPUT VOLTAGE PROPORTIONAL TO THE
MECHANICAL MOTION OF THE OBJECT

El«trQnk
Transducor P,oces rs Transmmor
Elett
Signa
ronic­
1
Rec.eiver Transducer
Electromagnetic ,.._.
wove
,,.,..1
,"'l&IJP'"..{11l"'- Electronic
Signal

21
Active transducers generate electric current or voltage
directly in response to environmental stimulation (Active
transducers are those which do not require any power source for their
operation. They work on the energy conversion principle. They produce an
electrical signal proportional to the input {physical quantity). For example, a
thermocouple is an active transducer.)
Passive transducers produce a change in some passive
electrical quantit y, such as capacitance, resistance, or
inductance, as a result of stimulation. These usually
require additional electrical energy for
excitation.(Transducers which require an external power source
for their operation is called as a passive transducer. They
produce an output signal in the form of some variation in
resistance, capacitance or any other electrical parameter, which
than has to be converted to an equivalent current or voltage
22
signal.)
EXAMPLE OF ACTIVE TRANSDUCER

Exa m o l e of a ct iv e t ra n sd u<;er s

• l' ic•:,o c lec tri ·c f r a n-s d u ce r- \ Vhen 1111 ,·1<tcm. I

fon::c i..,. a.p p l i..:d on I<• J t11.1ni u. CC) , 1=,L t b tl.! " ' 1 ll
he 3
.,;hJ n 111 I h e, •11l t.i ·..- ft.: n.: 1.i tr:d u.,.o:-." the,
url ,1.,;c
T h i , 4.. b nn g c 1!. m 1?!l!>1.tred by , .,_ co 11c, po 1 11g \' a
lu c
,,f -..,u11d u.- vil1•1 .i 1u u. I f

23
EXAMPLE OF PASSIVE TRANSDUCER

--- =-
P a s s i v e Tr a n s d u c e r
LOR.
m1or-0p
speaker.ho c'le,

==-----­
-
tnenn1ster,

24
 Static Characteristics Of
Instruments And Measurement
Systems ( Ref 4, Chapter 2)
• Application involved measurement of
quantity that are either constant or varies
slowly with time is known as static.
};:,-Accuracy
D rift
};:,- D e a d
Zone
};:,- S ta tic
Error
25
 Static Characteristics

>"' Static
correction
>"' Scale range
>"' Scale span
>"' Noise
>"' Dead Time
>"' H ysteresis.
>"' Linearity 26
• ACCURACY: It is the closeness with an
instrument reading approaches the true
value of the quantity being measured.
• TRUE VALUE: True value of quantity
may be defined as the average of an infinite
no. of measured value.
• SENSITMTY is defmed as the ratio of
the magnitude of the output response to that
of input response.

27
• STATIC ERROR: It is defined as the
difference between the measured value
and true value of the quantity.
A=Am-At
Where Am =measured value of quantity
At =true value of quantity.
It is also called as the absolute static error.

28
• SCALE RANGE: The scale range of an
instrument is defined as the difference
between the largest and the smallest reading
of the instrument.
Suppose highest point of calibration is Xmax
units while the lowest is Xmin units, then the
instrument range is between Xmin and Xmax·
• SCALE SPAN: Scale span or instrument
span is given as Scale span= X 111ax - Xmin
It is the difference between highest and
lowest point of calibration.

29
• Reproducibility is specified in terms of
scale readings over a given period of time.
• Drift is an undesirable quality in industrial
instruments because it is rarely apparent
and cannot be 1naintained.
It is classified as
a) Zero drift
b) Span drift or sensitivity drift
c) Zonal drift.
30
 Dynamic Characteristics of
Measurement System
( Ref 4, Chapter 4)

• Speed of
response
• Measuring lag
• Fidelity
• Dynamic error

31
 .
• SPEED OF RESPONSE :It is defmed
as
the rapidity with which a measurement
system responds to changes in measured
quantity. It is one of the dynamic
characteristics of a measurement system.
• FIDELITY: It is defined as the degree to
which a measurement system indicates
changes in the measured quantity without
any dynamic error.
32
 Dynamic Error

• It is the difference between the true value

of the quantity changing with time and the
value indicated by the measurement system
if no static error is assumed. It is also
called measurement error. It is one the
dynamic characteristics.

33
 Measuring Lag
• It is the retardation delay in the response of
a measurement system to changes in the
measured quantity. It is of 2 types:
• Retardation type: The response begins
imn1ediately after a change in measured
quantity has occurred.
• Time delay: The response of the
measurement system begins after a dead
zone after the application of the input.
34
 Errors in Measurement
• Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors)
• Known Error
Classification

Gross Systematic Or Random Or

Error
Cumulative Residual

--- - ,
Error Accidental
Or
Error

Instrumental Environmental Observational

35
Gross E1Tor
• Human Mistakes in reading , recording and
calculating measurement results.
• The experiinenter may grossly n1isread the
scale.
• E.g.: Due to oversight instead
of21.5°C, they may read as 31.5°C
They may transpose the reading while
recording (like reading 25.8°C and
record as 28.5°C)
36
 Systematic Errors
• INSTRUMENTAL ERROR: These errors
arise due to 3 reasons-
• Due to inherent short comings in the
inst rument
• D ue to misuse of the instrument
• Due to loading effects of the instrument
• ENVIRONMENTAL ERROR: These
e1Tors
are du e to co ndi tion s ex ter n a l to the measuring
device. These may be effects of temperature,
pressure, hurnjdity, dust or of external electrostatic
• or magnetic field .
O BSE RVATIO N AL ERROR: The error
on account of parallax is the observational
37
e1Tor.
 Residual
error
This is also known as residual error. These
errors are due to a
multitude of small factors
which change or fluctuate from one
measure1nent to another. The happenings or
disturbances about which we are
unaware are lumped together and
called"Random" or"Residual". Hence the
errors caused by these are called random or 38
residual errors.
 Arithmetic Mean
• The 1nost probable valu e of measured variable is
the arithmetic mean of the number of readings
taken.
• It is given by
=
x= x, + x2 + .....x ,,
n n
LX
Where x = arithmetic mean
• x1,x2,.. x3= readings of san1ples
• n= number of readings

39
 Deviation
• Deviation is departure of the observed reading
from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings.

d1 = X 1- '"X
di= Xi - X
d 3 = x 3 - 'X
d. = x,, - y
d 1 + d i + d 3 + .....+ d ,. = 0
ie
= ( x 1 - X )+ ( xi - X)+ ( x3- X)+ .. + ( x ,, -
X)
= ( x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + .. . + x ,, ) - n X
=nX-nX=O
40
 Standard
Deviation
• The standard deviation of an infinite nu1nber of
data is defined as the square root of the sum of
the individu al deviations squared divided by the
number of readings.

d2
+ d1 2+ d 2+ +d2 "\' d2
S.D = cr = · 1 = .L., (> 20obser
, ...
4
vation)
11
11
d21 d 2 d' d ' "\'
SD
. =s= + ' + l +...+ · 4 = .L., (<
11 - l d2
20observation)
n-l
41
 Variance

I
Variance= (S.D J = a = -­
2

(>
d2n

20observation) I
Variance= (S.D J = s = - ­
2

(<
d2
n- 1

20observation)
42
 Problem
Question: The following 10 observation
were recorded when measuring a
voltage:
41.7,42.0,41.8,42.0,42.l,
41.9,42.0,41.9,42.5,41.8volts.
1. Mean
2. Standard Deviation
3. Probable Error
4. Range. 43
 Answer

• Mean=4 l .97 volt

• S.D=0.22 volt
• Probable error=0.15 volt
• Range=0.8 volt.

44
 Calibration
• Calibration of all instnunents is i1nporta nt since it
affords the opportunity to check the instruments
against a known standard and subsequently to find
errors and accuracy.
• Calibratio n P rocedure involve a co1nparison of the
particular instrument with either
)"' a Primary standard
>- a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than
the instrument to be calibrated.
)"' an instrument of known accuracy.
45
 Standards

A standard is a physical representation of

a unit of measurement. The term '
standard'
is applied to a piece of equipment having a
known measure of physical quantity.

46
 Types of Standards
- Inter national Standards (defined based
on international agreement )

- Primary Standards (1na inta in ed

by national standards
laboratories)

-Secondary Standards ( used by industrial

measurement laboratories)

- Working Standards ( used in general

laboratory) 47
 Perfonnance measures of sensors
I.Range and Span
The range of a transducer defines the limits
between which the input can vary on the
working.

The Span is the difference between the maximum

value and the minimu1n value.

For example, a load cell for the measurement of

forces might have a range of O to 50kN and its
span is 50kN (50 kN - 0 kN = 50kN). 48
2.Error
En·or is the difference between the result of the
measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured.
Error = measured value - true value
For example, measurement system gives a
ten1perature reading of 50°C , but the actual
reading is 49 °C, then the error is +1°C (50°C -
49°C). If the actual reading is 52 °C, then the
error is -2°C (50°C- 52°C). The error can
obtain in both positive and negative values.
49
3.Accuracy
It is the extent in which the value indicated by a 1neasurement system
m.ight be wrong. It is the sun1mation of all the possible errors that are
likely to occur as well as the accuracy to which the transducer has
been calibrated.

For exa1nple, if the temperature of the system have a spec ified

accuracy of ± 5°C, this means that the reading given by the
instrument to be lie within plus or minus 5 °C of the true value.
Accuracy is n1ainly expressed in percentage of the full range.
For example, a h·ansducer having an accuracy of ± I 0% of full range
output of 0 to 500 °C, then the reading can be expected from plus or
minus 50 °C of the true read ing i.e., from 450 °C to 550°C.

50
4. Sensitivity
It is normally termed as the relationship showing
how 1nuch output there is per unit input, i.e.,
output/input.
For example, a resistance thermometer has
sensitivity of 1Q/°C. This shows that the
thermo1neter having sensitivity, where there is a
deflection of lQ for every 1°C. This is also used to
indicate the sensitivity to inputs other than being
measured.

51
5. Hysteresis Error
Transducers can give different values of outputs to
the same value of quantity being measured.
So the output value will be obtained by
continuously increasing or continuously decreasing
change. This effect is called hysteresis.
The difference between the decrease in change and
increase in change on the system of measurement
known as hysteresis error.

52
6. Non-Linearity error
In many Transducers linear relationship between the input and
output is assu1ned over the working range. i.e. , for the given input
the obtained output will produce a graph of straight line.
But so1n e times this linearity will not be occurred due to certain
possible errors. The enor is defined as the maximwn difference from
the straight line. It is known as Non-Linearity error. Various
methods are used for the nmnerical expressions of the non-linearity
error.
This enor is generally defined by percentage of the full rang e output.
We can identify the non-linearity e1Tor by observing the linear
relationship of the input and output, plot the1n in a straight line on a
graph.

53
Then the non-linearity function for the input and
output also plot in the same graph. Surely, this non­
linearity will not be in straight line. The difference
between two graphs is called error (non-linearity
error). Below image shows the graph of non­
linearity error.
0
I Ideal Curve

- - I n p u t 54
7. Repeatability/Reproducibility
Repeatability /reproducibi lity in transducer is defined as the ability to
give the same output for the applications of the same input value.
ADVERTISING
The error occurring from the same output not given with repeated
applications is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range
output.
Repeatability = (max value- min value)/ full range * 100
For example, the maximu1n resistance measured in system of 100
°C
is 75Q and the mini1num resistance is 0.1Q of the range (0 to 75
Q), then the repeatability is calculated by
Repeatability = (75-0.1)/75 * I 00
Repe atability = 74.9/75 = 0.99 * 100
Repeatability = 99
For the system the repeatability will be 99% for the same output
value for the san1e input.
55
8. S ta bilit y
Stability of a transducer is the performance of a traJ1sducer which
will give the same output when used to measure the same input for a
period of ti1ne.
Normally, stability is nothing but for the constant given input the
output will be stable only for give n period of ti1ne in the
measurement system.

9. Drift
The tern, drift is used to describe the change in output for a given
period of time for the same input.
The drift may be expressed as percentage of the full range of
output.
There is a term called Zero Drift whic h is used to describe the
change in o utpu t on the system when there is no input or zero inp
ut.
56
10. Dead Band
Tbe dead band of a transducer is the range of input values in the system for
which there will be no output.
For example , iu a Load measurement system tbe change of resistance will
define the amount of weight but if there will be no output for some range of
input after that output will occur similarly.
The space / time where there is no output for the input is known as Dead
Band o r Dead space.

11. R esolution
When the input varies continuously over the range in the system, whic h
may
cause small change in output signals. Reso lution is nothing but small change
in input will cause the observable change in output also.
For example, iu wire wound potentiometer the slider moves from one tum to
the next one wh.ich will change the output resistance reasonably. For a
transducer giving a digital output will produce a smallest change in output
signal is l bit.

57
SENSORS

58
 Classification of sensors
Detail classification of sensors in view of their applications in m anufacturing is as follows.
• A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors
Potentiometer • Strai-n gauged element • Capacitiveelement • Differential transformers •
Eddy current proximity sensors • Inductive proximity switch • Optical encoders• Pneumatic sensors •
Proximity switches (magnetic) • Hall effect se nsors
B. Velocity and motion
• Incrementalencoder • Tachogenerator • Pyroelectric sensors
• C. Force
• Stra in gauge loadcell
• D. Fluid pressure
• Diaphragm pres.sure gauge • Capsules, be llo ws, pressure tubes • Piezoelect ric se nsors
Tactilesensor
• •
• E. Liquid flow
• Orifice plate • Turbine mete r F. liqu id leve l • Floats • Diffe re ntial pressu re
• G. Temperature
• Bim etalli c stri p s • Resistance temperature detectors • Thermistors • Thermo-diodes and
transistors• Thermocoup les • Light sensors • Photo diodes • Photoresistors

59
Sensor Calibration Techniques

60
 Sensor Calibration Techniques

Sensor Calibration in simple terms can be defined

as the comparison between the desired output
and the measured output. These errors can be
caused by various reasons. Some of the errors seen
in sensors are errors due to improper zero­
reference, errors due to shift's in sensor range, error
due to mechanical damage, etc...

61
62
 Why do we need to calibrate
sensors?
1.No sensor is perfect.
Sample to sample manufacturing variations mean that even two
sensors from the same manufacturer production run may
yield slightly different readings.
Differences in sensor design mean two different sensors may
respond differently in similar conditions. This is especially true
of 'indirect' sensors that calculate a measurement based on
one or more actual measurements of some different, but
related parameter.
Sensors subject to heat, cold, shock, humidity etc. during
storage, shipment and/or assembly may show a change in
response.
Some sensor techno logies'age' and their response will
naturally change over time - requiring periodic re-calibration.
63
2. The Sensor is only one component in the
measurement system. For example:
•With analog sensors, your ADC is part of the
measurement system and subject to variability as
well.
•Temperature measurements are subject to thermal
gradients between the sensor and the measurement
point.
•Light and color sensors can be affected by spectral
distribution, ambient light, specular reflections and
other optical phenomena.
•Inertial sensors almost always have some 'zero
offset' error and are sensitive to alignment with the
system being measured
64
 What makes a good sensor?
The two most import ant characteristic of a
sensor are:
Precision - The ideal sensor will always produce
the same output for the same input.
Resolution - A good sensor will be able to reliably
detect small changes in the measured paran1eter.

..... • -·-
.,,, /. . .
,p

. • . ..
. .,­,
65
(ii' •
M. . . , , -. -c ;1 P • . r o • 1 . . . . -
 How Do We Calibrate?
The first Lhing to decide is what your calibration reference will be.
Standard References
lf it is important to get accurate readings in some standard units, you will need a
Standard Reference to calibrate against. This can be:
A calibrated sensor - lf you have a sensor or instrument that is known to be
accurate. It can be used to make reference readings for comparison. Most
laboratories will have instruments that have been calibrated against NIST standards.
These will bave documentation including the specfic reference against which they
were calibrated, as well as any correction factors that need to be applied
to the output.
A standard physica l reference - Reaso nably accurate physical standards can be
used as standa rd references for some types of sensors
Rangefinders
Rulers and Meter sticks
Temperature Sensors
Boiling Water - I00°C at sea-level
Ice-water Bath - The "Triple Point" of water is 0.0 I° C a t sea-level
Accelerometers
Gravity is a constant I G on the su rfac.e of the earth.
6
6
Working Principle of Sensor Calibra tion

• Calibration of the sensors aids in enhancing their functionality and accuracy.

industries do sensor calibration using two well-known procedures.
• The first way involves businesses inco1porating an internal calibration procedure
within their production facility to undertake customized sensor calibration.
• ln this case, the business incorporates the required hardware into its design for
senso r output rectification. Through this procedure, the sensor calibration can be
adjusted to meet the needs of a particular application. However, this procedure
lengthen s the time to market.
• As an alternative to this internal calibration process, seve ral manufacturing firms
offer sensor packages that include an exceUent automotive-grade MEMS sensor in
addition to full syste m-level calibration.
• Companies use onboard digital circuitry and so ftware in this approach to assist
designers in enhancing the performance and usability of the sensors. Digital
circuitry, such as voltage regulation and analog signal filtering techniques, are
used to shorten the product design cyc le and reduce the number of components.
• Advanced sensor fusion method s are offered to the onboard processor to enbance
overall performance and functionality. Some highly developed onboard signal
processing algorithms also aid in shortening the production process, enabling
quicker time to market. 6
7
 Calibration Methods

Three different types of calibration:

One Point Calibration
Two Point Calibration
Multi-Point Curve Fitting

68
 One Point Calibration
One point calibration is the simplest type of calibration. If your sensor
output is already scaled to useful roeasure1nent units, a one point
calibration can be used to correct for sensor offset errors in the
following cases:
Only one measurement point is needed. If you have an application
that only requires accurate measure1nent of a siugle level, there is no
need to worry about the rest of the measurement range. An example
1night be a temperature control system that needs to maintain the same
temperature continuously.
The sensor is known to be linear and have the correct slope over
the desired measurement range. ln this case, it is only necessary to
calibrate one point in the rneasure1nent range and adjust the offset if
necessary. Many te1nperature sensors are good candidates for one­
point calibration.

69
A one point calibration can also be used as a "drift check" to detect
changes in response and/or deterioration in sensor performance.
For example, thermocouples used at very high temperatures exhibit
an 'aging' effect. This can be detected by performing periodic one
point calibrations, and comparing the resulting offset with the
previous calibration.
..,

-
..,._ .,
..,_
.,,. ..
".. '
M easured Parameter 70
How to do it:
To perfonn a one point calibration:
Take a measurement with your sensor.
Compare that measurement with your reference
standard.
Subtract the sensor reading from the reference
reading to get the offet.
In your code, add the offset to every sensor reading
to obtain the calibrated value.

71
 Two Point Calibration
A Two Point Calibration is a little more complex. But it can be
applied to either raw or scaled senso r outp uts. A T wo Point
calibration essentially re-scales the output and is capable of
con:ecting both slope and offset errors. Two point calibration can be
used in cases where the sensor output is known to be reasonably
linear over the measure1nent range.
..
.

72
Measured Parameter
Row to do it:
To perfo1n1 a two point calibration:
Take two measurements with your sensor: One near the low end of
the measurement range and one near the high end of the
measurement range. Record these readings as "RawLow" and
"RawHigh"
Repeat these 1neasurements with your reference instnunent. Record
these readings as "ReferenceLow" and "Reference High"

Ca lcula te "RawRange" as RawHigh - RawLow.

Cal.c ulate "ReferenceRange" as ReferenceHigh - ReferenceLow
ln your code, calculate the "CorrectedValue" using the formula
below:
CorrectedValue = (((RawValue - RawLow) *
ReferenceRange) /
RawRange) + ReferenceLow
 Multi-Point Curve Fitting
Sensors that are not linea r over the measurement range
require some curve-fitting to achieve accurate
measurements over the1neasurement range. A coID1non
case requiring curve-fitting is thermocouples at
extremely hot or cold temperatures. While nearly linear
over a fairly wide range, they do deviate significan tly at
extreme temperatw·es.

l 1/l
.,,.'/
J

• "·./".I
74
"'-• 1.-1,. -11..-
Sensor output signal types

7
5
 sensor output signal types
Digital vs. Analog
First, we make a distinction between two types of outputs: an analog and a digital
output. A sensor with a digital output signals a logical value. ln other words: Yes or
No, 0 or /, Tme or False, Valid or Invalid . A digital output is very well-suited to
indicate the presence of an object (at a certain distance) or detecting whether a set
limit value has been reached. Does the sensor "see" the object or not? ls the value
reached or not? During a detection or non-detection the logical value changes from a
O to a I, or vice versa! Examples of digital (switching) outputs are PNP/ N PN, relay,
solid state relay and PushPull.

A sensor with an analog output is capable of giving a signal that is continuously

partallel to the measured value. An analog signal is a signal that can register values
without intervals. Think of a constantly fluctuating temperature in an outdoor
location, such as the conveyor belts in the production of steel beams: the analog
output changes parallel en mostly linear with the change of the measurement of tbe
sensor. Another example is the change of a distance from 0 to 1.000 cm or a
temperature drops from 200°C to 20°C. Examples of analog outputs are 0- 10 Vde,
4-20 mA, 0-5 Vdc or 0-20 mA. 7
6
Types of digital outputs: PNP or NPN

Sensors with a PNP or NPN switching contact

make use of a transistor output. The type of
transistor output determines whether the sensor
switches PNP or NPN. Sensors with a PNP or
NPN switching output are equipped with at least
three wires; A " + " (Pin 1 / brown wire), a " - "
(Pin 3 I blue wire) and a switching wire (Pin 4 /
black wire).

77
 PNP switching output
The load is switching between the
switching wire (4) and the - (3) within a
sensor with a PNP switching output.

- - B r o w n 1
1 - - - - - - 0 - - +
Black 4 Load

Blue 3

78
 NPN switching output
The load is switching between the
switching wire (4) and the+ (1) within a
sensor with a NPN switching output.

- Brown
11- - - - - 0 - - - - - - , - +
Black

Blue
3

79
 PushPull switching output
A PushPull output means that the switching component of a sensor
consists of two transistors. This is a type of output in whjch it is
possible to alternately switch PNP as well as NPN. The circuit is
designed in such a way that any voltage between a ce1tain li1nit will
make the sensor switch NPN, while a lower voltage provides a PNP
output. Sensors with a PushPull output are versatile to use in
applications that require a PNP and NPN output. The advantage is
also that there is no need for developing the same sensor but with an
NPN or PNP output.

+
Ua
F

.
I.,. I

•
I

.
Com 4

u, •
80
 Solid State Relay (SSR) output
A solid state relay (SSR) is also known as an optocoupler relay or
semiconductor relay. It is a type of relay without a mechanical
switch, contrary to a more conventional relay. Conventional
mechanical relays have the advantage of being able to switch higher
power rates, but because of 1noving parts are susceptible to wear and
tear. A solid state relay switches by use of a light-sensitive dio de
and is, because of this, free fro1n wear and tear. In addition it is also
capable of higher switc hing frequencies.

81
 Analog Outputs
The most widely used standards are current analog 4 to 20
mA and voltage of 0-10 Vde. There are others like 1-5
VDC, 0-20 mA and 201nA -20mA.
Serial Outputs
The sensors with serial outputs are connected to networks
for field devices and the information is ser ially transmitted
(bit stream) through a cable network and send ing data
from the sensor to the controller or supervisio n by a
communications port. Examples of field bus (field
networks) mentioned below: Devicenet, Profibus dp.
Foundation FieldBus and in recent years it has increased
the functionality of EtherNet/IP as a network of field.
82