Production Training

Gas Handling
Agenda

• Objectives
• What is a Gas?
• Properties of Gases
• Uses of Gases
• Gas Movement
• Fans
• Gas Flow Measurement Equipment
Objectives

• To learn about gases and their properties

• To review the gases commonly encountered in the
cement industry and their uses
• To gain an understanding of how gas moves
• To discuss how certain properties of gases and gas
handling systems can be used in troubleshooting
• To review fans
What is a Gas?

• Gas – a fluid that has the ability to flow and does not
resist deformation.
• Unlike liquids, unconstrained gases do not occupy a fixed
volume, but instead expand to fill whatever space they
occupy
• The kinetic energy in a gas is the second greatest of the
states of matter (after plasma)
• Because of this increased kinetic energy, gas atoms and
molecules tend to bounce off of one another
• Examples:
• Natural gas, propane, CO2, NOx, SO2, etc.
• Air, butane, etc.
Gases

Definite shape
and volume Shape is determined
by container

Expands to fill
available space
Common Gases in the Cement Industry

• Air (O2, N2, CO2, Ar, ...)

• Water vapor (H2O)
• Cooling
• Kiln feed residual water
• Combustion product
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Calcination
• Combustion product
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
• Sulfur in raw materials
• Combustion product
• NOx
Properties of Gases

• Density
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Viscosity
• Humidity
• Dry-Bulb, wet-bulb, and dew point temperature
Density

• Density – the ratio of the mass of a substance to its

volume.

m

V

where:  = density [kg·m-3 (lbm·ft-3)]

m = mass [kg (lbm)]
V = volume [m3 (ft3)]
Pressure

• Pressure – the magnitude of the perpendicular force per unit

area exerted by a system on its surroundings.

F mg Vg Ahg
p     gh
A A A A
where: p = pressure [kg·m-1·s-2 or N·m-2 or Pa (lbf·ft-2)]
F = force [kg·m·s-2 or N (lbm·ft·s-2 or lbf)]
A = area [m2 (ft2)]
m = mass [kg (lbm)]
g = gravitational force [9.80665 m·s-2 (32.174
ft·s-2)]
 = density [kg·m-3 (lbm·ft-3)]
V = volume [m3 (ft3)]
h = height [m (ft)]
Temperature

• Temperature – a measure of the warmth or coldness of

an object or substance with reference to some standard
value.
• The temperature of two systems is the same when the systems
are in thermal equilibrium

t F  1.8t C  32
t F  32
t C 
1 .8
TR  t F  459.67
TK  t C  273.15
Viscosity

• Dynamic (absolute) viscosity () – resistance of a fluid to

flow (the shearing stress for a unit rate of change of
velocity).
• This resistance acts against the motion of any solid object
through the fluid and also against motion of the fluid itself past
stationary obstacles
• Viscosity also acts internally on the fluid between slower and
faster moving adjacent layers
Humidity

• Relative humidity – the amount of water vapor in the air,

expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount that
the air could hold at the given temperature; the ratio of
the actual water vapor pressure to the saturation vapor
pressure.
fw pw
 
fws pws
where:  = relative humidity [%]
fw = mole fraction of water vapor
fws = mole fraction of water vapor at saturation
pw = partial pressure of water vapor
pws = partial pressure of water vapor at
saturation
Dry-Bulb, Wet-Bulb, and Dew Point T’s

• Dry-bulb temperature – the temperature of both the gas

and the water vapor in the mixture.
• Wet-bulb temperature – the temperature indicated by a
water-covered thermometer once equilibrium is attained.
The wet-bulb temperature will be lower than the dry-bulb
temperature as long as evaporation continues. If the
mixture is saturated, i.e. no evaporation occurs, then the
wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures are equal.
• Dew point temperature – the saturation temperature
corresponding to the absolute humidity of the mixture. It
is also the temperature at which condensation begins
when the mixture is gradually cooled.
Uses of Gases

• Drying
• Raw materials and fuels
• Cooling
• Clinker
• Cement
• Other gases
• Equipment
• Conveying
• Fuel into kiln
• Powdered materials from process to storage, or vice versa
• Air slide, pneumatic conveyor (e.g. F-K pump)
• Mill sweep
Uses of Gases

• Combustion
• Air (oxygen) to combust fuel
• As a fuel (e.g. natural gas)
• Cutting torch fuel (and combustion air)
• Build-up removal
• Air lances
• CO2 tubes (a.k.a Cardox)
• Calibrate instrumentation
• Gas analyzers
Gas Movement

• Gas is a fluid and, like liquids, must be pushed or pulled

in order to move
• This movement is generated by a “differential pressure”
• The more negative pressure will pull the gas towards it
(like water running downhill being pulled by gravity)
Pressure and Flow

1.5” 1.5” 0”
pT pS pV

-0.5” -1.5” 1.0”

1.5” 0.5” 1.0”

Gas Movement – Induced Draft
-700 mmH2O
(-28 in H2O)

-750 mmH2O
(-30 in H2O)

-5 mmH2O
-50 mmH2O (-0.2 in H2O)
(-2 in H2O)
 Gas Movement – Forced Draft

-25 mmH2O
(-1 in H2O)
-25 mmH2O
(-1 in H2O)
-50 mmH2O
(-2 in H2O)

600 mmH2O 200 mmH2O

(24 in H2O) (8 in H2O)

0 mmH2O
(0 in H2O)
Gas Flow in Ducting and Pipes
Q1=v1A1

A1

v1

Q2=v2A2

A2
v2

If Q1  Q2  v 1A1  v 2 A2
A2
v1  v 2
A1
Pressure Drop (Differential Pressure)

• Pressure drop occurs due to:

• Energy losses while conveying material
• Friction along walls
• Bends in ductwork/piping
• Reduction in duct size
• Obstructions
• Dampers
• Cyclones
• Dust collectors
• Et cetera
• Must consider pressure drop when designing equipment
and systems
Pressure Drop (Differential Pressure)

• Troubleshooting with p
• Dust collector filter condition
• High p indicates bags may be overloaded or blinded
• Low p indicates hole(s) in filters
• Plugged cyclone
• Pneumatic conveying line build-up or plug
• Build-up in preheater
• Reduction in cross-sectional area will restrict gas flow
• Less gas flow, less clinker production
• Blinding of grates in ball mill
Fans
• Fan – a device that produces a
current of gas by the movement
of a broad surface.
• Distinguished from
compressors by pressure
generated
• Fans < 1 bar [15 psig]
• Compressors > 1 bar [15 psig]
• Also distinguished by
compression ratio (or density
change)
• Fans < 1.1 (or 7%)
• Compressors > 1.1 (or 7%)
Fan Components
1. Fan outlet
2. Fan housing
3. Fan inlet
4. Impeller
5. Blade
6. Access door
7. Cooling disc
8. Bearing
9. Shaft guard
10. Fixed bearing
11. Fastening frame
12. Shaft
13. Foundation
Fan Components

• Impeller
• Rotating element that transfers energy to the fluid
• A.k.a. wheel, rotor, squirrel cage, propeller, or runner
• Housing
• Stationary element that guides the air or gas before and after the
impeller
• A.k.a. casing, stator, scroll, panel, ring, or volute
Fan Control

• Increasing system pressure

• Variable inlet vanes
• A.k.a. VIVs, radial inlet vanes, vortex damper
• Inlet box dampers
• A.k.a. IBDs
• Varying fan speed
• Variable speed drive
• Variable pitch blades
• Axial fans
• Either adjustable (not in operation) or controllable (in operation)
• Variable pitch sheaves
• Up to 30% adjustment
• Manual adjustment
Gas Flow Measurement Equipment

• Equipment
• Pitot tube
• Digital thermometer (w/ thermocouple)
• Pressure gauge (w/ tubing)
• O2 analyzer
• Exit gas composition
• Measure O2
• Calculate CO2, SO2, N2, and H2O
Standard (“L”) Pitot Tube
Double Reverse (“S”) Pitot Tube
• Dusty or moist gas streams
• S?
• Standard?
• No
• Static?
• No
• Stauscheibe
• “Air flow sensor plate” or
“pressure plate”
Digital Thermometers
 Pressure Gauges

Note: connect negative (low pressure) port to Pitot tube static pressure fitting
when measuring velocity pressure
O2 Analyzer
Additional Resources
• AMCA Fan Application Manual; Air Movement and Control
Association, Inc.
• ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals; SI edition; American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.; © 1993.
• Cement Data Book; Duda, Walter H.; Volume 1 – International
Process Engineering in the Cement Industry; 3rd edition; Bauverlag
GmbH; © 1985.
• Fan Engineering; Jorgensen, Robert; 9th edition; Howden Buffalo,
Inc.; © 1999.
• Industrial Ventilation; 21st edition; American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc.; © 1992.
• Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook; Perry, Robert H. and Green,
Don W.; 6th edition; McGraw-Hill, Inc.; section 5; © 1984.
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
The End