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Unit 2B DNA

DNA contains the genetic instructions for building and maintaining the human body, taking the form of a double helix structure with a backbone made of sugar and phosphate groups joined by pairs of nitrogen bases. The four nitrogen bases that make up DNA are adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine, which bond together in specific pairs to form the rungs of the DNA ladder. DNA replicates itself through a process where the double helix unwinds and each strand acts as a template for a new partner strand to be synthesized.

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15 views

Unit 2B DNA

DNA contains the genetic instructions for building and maintaining the human body, taking the form of a double helix structure with a backbone made of sugar and phosphate groups joined by pairs of nitrogen bases. The four nitrogen bases that make up DNA are adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine, which bond together in specific pairs to form the rungs of the DNA ladder. DNA replicates itself through a process where the double helix unwinds and each strand acts as a template for a new partner strand to be synthesized.

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jamalimeer.2005
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Unit 2B

Human Form & Function

Cells, metabolism & regulation

DNA
Further information
•Further information
about this topic can be
found in Our Human
Species
(3rd edtn)

Chapter 18
Sections 1, 2, 3, 4 & 7
DNA
• DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid.
• DNA carries the genetic information in the
cell – i.e. it carries the instructions for
making all the structures and materials the
body needs to function.
• DNA is capable of self-replication.
• Most of the cell’s DNA is carried in the
nucleus – a small amount is contained in
the mitochondria.
Wellcome Images – Oliver Burston
Landmarks
• 1869 – Frederick Miescher isolates DNA.
• 1953 – James Watson, Francis Crick,
Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin
discover the structure of DNA.
• 2003 – Human Genome project
completed.
The structure of DNA
• The shape of the molecule is described as
a “double helix”.
• The building blocks of DNA are
nucleotides.
• A nucleotide consists of one phosphate
molecule, a five-sided sugar molecule
(deoxyribose sugar), and one nitrogen
base.
DNA - the double helix

Wellcome Images – Peter Artymiuk Wellcome Images – Oliver Burston


The structure of the double helix

Wellcome Images - Pete Jeffs


The ladder model
• The structure of DNA can be understood more
easily by untwisting the double helix and
displaying the molecule as if it were a ladder.
• The side rails of the ladder (the “backbone”) are
alternating phosphate and sugar molecules.
The rungs are paired nitrogen base molecules
held together by a hydrogen bond.
The “ladder” model

Backbone

Base pair

Nucleotide

NIH - National Human Genome Research Institute


The DNA backbone
• The two side rails of the ladder run in
opposite directions, which can be
identified by the end of the rail which is
either a three base (3’) end, or a five base
(5’) end. [3 & 5 refer to the carbon atoms in the sugar
molecule that form a bond with the adjoining phosphate.]
• One strand runs from 3’ to 5’ and the
opposite strand, from 5’ to 3’.
A nucleotide
G
P
5' H 3' Nitrogen base
A T
S S Pentose sugar
Nucleotide S

P
P
T P P
5' Phosphate
H
S T A

S S
3'

P
P
C H G

5' C S S
O

4' C C 1' 3' 5' P

3' C C 2'

OH
The base pairing rule
• Each “rung” of the DNA ladder is formed
from two nitrogen bases.
• There are four bases – adenine (A),
thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine
(G).
• The base adenine always bonds with
thymine (A-T), and cytosine always bonds
with guanine (C-G).
The base pairs
The binding of two
nucleotides forms a
base pair. In DNA,
cytosine and guanine
are bound together by
3 hydrogen bonds,
whereas adenine and
thymine are bound by
2 hydrogen bonds.

NIH - National Human Genome Research Institute


The base pairs
Wellcome Images - Pete Jeffs
Location of DNA

• Most of the DNA occurs in the cell


nucleus; however, each
mitochondrion contains 37 genes –
this is referred to as mitochondrial
DNA.
• Human cells
stained to show
the DNA within the
nuclei (blue), and
the mitochondia in
red.

Wellcome Images – Paul J Smith & Rachel Errington


The function of DNA
Genes
• A chromosome consists of segments of
DNA known as genes.
• Genes contain the instructions for the
construction of a particular protein, or
RNA.
• It is estimated that there are about
20,000–25,000 genes in the human
genome (i.e. about 3 billion base pairs).
Introns and exons
• Genes consist of introns and exons
• Exons are sections of coding DNA – i.e.
they contain instructions for making
proteins.
• Introns are sections of non-coding DNA
(once called "junk DNA") – i.e. they do not
contain instructions for making proteins
but are now believed to serve other
important functions.
Introns and exons

Exons

DNA
Intron Intron

mRNA

NIH - National Human Genome Research Institute


The genetic code
• The sequence of bases in a gene is a
code instructing the cell how to construct a
particular protein – i.e. the number of
amino acids and the order in which they
are to be assembled.
Reading the code
• The sequence of bases is read in groups
of three called codons.
• Thus the sequence:
AAGCCGTTTAGAGAGATTCCT
Is read as:
AAG CCG TTT AGA GAG ATT CCT

• Each codon represents one of the 20


different amino acids.
How DNA
works

National Human Genome


Research Institute - NIH
DNA replication
• DNA has the unusual property of being
able to produce an exact copy of itself –
this process is called DNA replication.

• This occurs after cell division when the


amount of DNA is halved.
• An enzyme unzips the DNA molecule
exposing the nitrogen base code.
• Each exposed strand acts as a pattern or
template for the construction of a new
DNA molecule.
• DNA polymerase works its way along the
template strand and adds new
nucleotides; A to T and G to C.
Replication

Old strand

New strand

NIH - National Human Genome Research Institute


By LadyofHats
Mitochondrial DNA
• Mitochondria contain 37 genes (16 500 bases)
which are responsible for the production of
important enzymes involved in cellular
respiration.
• Mitochondrial DNA is passed only from mother
to child.
• Some scientists believe the presence of
mitochondrial DNA indicates that mitochondria
were once free-living organisms.
Mitochondrial DNA

• Colour-enhanced SEM image of a mitochondrion


showing the internal membranes (cristae).
Wellcome Images – Dr David Furness
Study Guide

Read:
• Our Human Species
Chapter 18, Sections 1, 2, 3, 4 & 7
Complete:
• Workbook
Topic 1 - DNA

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