WHAT IS

REFRIGERATION
and AIR
CONDITIONING?
Refrigeration – is the process of removing heat
from an enclosed space, or from a substance,
and rejecting it elsewhere for the primary
purpose of lowering the temperature of the
enclosed space or substance and then
maintaining that lower temperature.

Air-Conditioning – the process of treating air to

control its temperature, humidity, cleanliness,
and distribution to meet the comfort
requirements of the occupants of the space
HISTORICAL APPLICATIONS
A. Ice Harvesting

• Ice and snow were stored in caves or dugouts lined with

straw or other insulating materials.
• The Persians stored ice in pits called yahairas.
• Rationing of the ice allowed the preservation of foods over
the cold periods. This practice worked well down through
the centuries, with icehouses remaining in use into the
twentieth century.
B. Artificial Refrigeration

• In the 16th century, the discovery

of chemical refrigeration was one
of the first steps toward artificial
means of refrigeration.
• Sodium nitrate or potassium
nitrate, when added to water,
lowered the water temperature
and created a sort of refrigeration
bath for cooling substances.
• In Italy, such a solution was used to
chill wine.
Oliver Evans – American inventor who designed in
1805 but never built a refrigeration system based on
the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.

Jacob Perkins – obtained the first patent for a vapor-

compression refrigeration system in 1834; he built a
prototype system and it actually worked, although it
did not succeed commercially.

John Gorre – designed the first system for refrigerating

water to produce ice (1842).
Dunedin was the first commercially successful refrigerated
ship, coming when William Soltau Davidson fitted a
compression refrigeration unit to the New Zealand vessel in
1882, leading to a meat and dairy boom in Australasia and
South America.
• Domestic mechanical refrigerators became available
in the United States around 1911.
• With the invention of synthetic refrigerations based
mostly on a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) chemical, safer
refrigerators were possible for home and consumer
use.
• Freon is a trademark of the Dupont Corporation and
refers to these CFC, and later
hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) and
hydrofluorocarbon (HFC), refrigerants.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

In general:

a. For comfort improvement

b. For preservation
c. As aid for some other
processes
AIR-CONDITIONING

1. Residential Air-
Conditioning
a. Air-
Conditioners
b. Central or
Unitary
System
c. Heat Pumps
AIR-CONDITIONING
2. Air-Conditioning of medium-sized and large
buildings
a. Stores and shops
b. Restaurants and recreation centers
c. Hotels, offices and related types of
building
d. Arena, coliseums, dance halls
e. Hospitals
3. Industrial Air-Conditioning – provide at least a
partial measure of comfort for workers but also
controls air conditions favorable to processing
some object or material.
a. Spot Cooling – done by
directing a stream of
cool air onto occupied
areas (steel mill)
b. Environmental
laboratories - testing
engines (-40OC);
animals for study
(tropical)
c. Printing – static electricity, curling or
buckling of paper, failure of ink to dry
d. Textiles – control of air humidity and
pressure
e. Photographic products – raw photographic
materials deteriorate rapidly in high
temperature and humidity
f. Computer rooms (20 – 23OC, 30 – 45% RH)
– faulty manner when units get hot
g. Power plants
 h. Precision parts and clean rooms (enclosure
for manufacturing electronic components)
i. Keeping the temperatures uniform so
that the metal will not expand and
contract.
ii. Maintaining a humidity so that rust is
prevented.
iii. Filtering the air to minimize dust.

4. Transportation Air-Conditioning
- Major contributor of heat is solar radiation and
people.
FOOD PRESERVATION
 Food products are either: (a) non-living food,
or (b) living food.
 Causes of deterioration and spoilage:
a. internal agents (natural enzymes)
- causes chemical changes
- respiration, digestion, growth and
reproduction
- can be catabolic or anabolic
b. microorganisms on the surface of foodstuff
- bacteria, molds, yeasts
FOOD PRESERVATION
 Control of spoilage agents:

a. application of very high temperature

b. deprive them of moisture
c. deprive them of food substances
d. smoking and curing
e. subjecting to very low temperature.
Commercial Refrigeration – concerned with the
design, installation, and maintenance of
refrigerated fixtures of the type used by retail
stores, restaurants, hotels, and institutions for the
storing, displaying, processing, and dispensing of
perishable commodities of all types

Industrial Refrigeration – are larger than commercial

applications and have the distinguishing feature of
requiring an attendant on duty, usually a licensed
operating engineer
- Examples are ice plants, large food-packing plants,
breweries, etc.
1. Freezing

 General Categories of Refrigerated Storage:

a. Short-term or temporary storage – above
freezing temperature and usually from 1 to
15 days; in retail establishments
b. Long-term storage – for wholesalers and
commercial storage warehouses (from days
to months)
c. Frozen storage
 Types of Freezing:
a. Sharp (Slow) Freezing –
0OF to -40OF
b. Quick Freezing
 Methods of Freezing:
a. Air-Blast Freezing – use of high velocity and low
temperature air
b. Indirect Contact Freezing – food is placed
between metal plates and surfaces
c. Immersion Freezing – food is placed in a low
temperature brine
2. Cold Storage
3. Domestic Refrigeration –
household refrigerators and
home freezers
- Horsepower ratings are between
1/20 and ½ hp, and are of the
hermetically sealed type.
FOOD PROCESSING
1. Dairy products – pasteurized milk,
ice cream, cheese
2. Beverages – fruit juice, beer, wine
3. Chemical and process industries –
dinking fountains, and other
industries for non-food produts
like batteries, paper, petroleum
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
1. Industrial air-conditioning
2. Industrial refrigeration
a. Chemical processing plants
b. Creation of artificial environment – such as
ice-skating rinks
c. Construction engineering – freezing of soil to
facilitate excavation
d. Extremely-low temperature process
(cryogenics)
e. Industries like ice plants, food-packing plants,
breweries, and the like
MARINE AND TRANSPORTATION
REFRIGERATION
Marine Refrigeration – refers to refrigeration aboard
marine vessels and includes, for example,
refrigeration for fishing boats and for vessels
transporting cargo as well as refrigeration for the
ship’s stores on vessels of all kinds.

Transportation Refrigeration – concerned with

refrigeration equipment as it is applied to trucks,
both long distance transports and local delivery, and
to refrigerated railway cars
THERMODYNAMIC
PROPERTIES
Property – any observable, quantitative
characteristics of a substance

For fluid, it may be classified as :

a. state properties – define the physical

condition of the fluid
- may be determined by direct observation or
simple measurement
- pressure, density, temperature
b. thermodynamic properties – define the
thermal and energy conditions of the fluid;
also called as calculated properties
- internal energy, enthalpy, entropy, constant
volume specific heat, constant pressure
specific heat

c. transport properties – measure the diffusion

within the fluid resulting from molecular
activity
- viscosity, thermal conductivity
Mass (m) – the quantity of matter in a body
Density (ρ) – the mass per unit volume

m where: ρ = density
ρ m = mass
V V = volume
Density of water,
•For most calculations:
ρH20 = 1000 kg/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3
(which is the maximum density at about 4OC (39.2OF)
•At about 100OC (212oF):
ρH20 = 958 kg/m3 = 59.8 lb/ft3
Specific Volume = volume per unit mass
v 1
  where: υ = specific volume
m ρ
Specific Gravity – ratio of the density of a substance
to that of H2O
SG = ρ / ρH20

Mass Flow Rate – rate of flow of mass with respect

to time
ṁ = Vρ
Volume Flow Rate – rate of flow of a substance with
respect to time in terms of volume.
PROB: Water is flowing through a pipe at the
rate of 5.6 ft3/s. What is the mass flow rate
in pounds per seconds?

SOLN:
ṁ = Vρ
ṁ = (5.6 ft3/s)(62.4 lb/ft3)
ṁ = 349.44 lb/s
Velocity – rate of change of displacement with
respect to time
s where: v = velocity
v s = distance traveled
t
t = time
Acceleration – time rate of change of velocity
Δv
a where: a = acceleration
t
Standard acceleration of gravity (g): 9.807 m/s2 or 32.174 fps2.
The value given is for a latitude of 45O but is sufficiently
accurate at any latitude for routine calculations.
Force – a push or a pull; anything that has a tendency to
set a body in motion, to bring a moving body to rest,
or to change the direction of motion; it may also
change the size and shape of a body

Second Law of Motion: F = ma where: F = force

Pressure – force exerted per unit of area; measure of the
intensity of a force at any given point on the contact
surface.
F
P where: p = pressure
A
Atmospheric Pressure (ρatm)
= 1 atm
= 101325 N/m2
= 760 mm H
= 10.332 m of H2O
= 29.92 in Hg
= 14.7 psi
Absolute Pressure – the
“total” or “true” pressure of
a fluid
Gage Pressure – pressure as
indicated by a gage

ρatm ± ρgage = ρabs

 Use + when ρgage > ρatm
ρabs = ρatm ± ρgage

Use - when ρ <ρ

Manometer – is a pressure-measuring instrument used to
measure gauge pressure of the system using U-tube
wherein water or mercury is the working substance
Barometer – is a pressure-measuring instrument used to
measure atmospheric pressure
gauge.
Pressure Gauge – is a pressure-
measuring instrument used to
measure gauge pressure
directly by its dial indicator. A
typical example of this is a
Bourdon pressure gauge.
PROB: A rectangular tank measuring 2 ft by 3 ft at the
base is filled to a depth of 6 in. with water having a
density of 62.4 lb/ft3. Determine (a) the total
gravitational force, and (b) the pressure exerted by
the water on the base of the tank.
SOLN:
a. F = ma or W = (ρV)(g)
 lb m   6  ft 
 1 lb  s s

F   62.4 3  2ft 3ft   ft   32.2 2   f

 ft   12   s   32.2 lb m  ft 
F = 187.2 lb
b. P = F/A = (187.2 lb)/ (2ft)(3ft)
P = 31.2 lb/ft2 or psf = 0.2167 lb/in2 or psi
PROB: A pressure gage on a refrigerant
condenser reads 120 psi. What is the
absolute pressure of the refrigerant in
the condenser?

SOLN:
ρabs = ρatm ± ρgage
ρabs = ρatm + ρgage = 120 + 14.7 psi
ρabs = 134.7 psi
Work – force times distance or displacement in the
same direction of the force

W = Fs

Power – time rate of doing work in J/s or watt (W)

W
P
t
where: P = power
W = work
PROB: A large crate is moved at a constant
velocity for a distance of 280 ft along a
horizontal conveyor against a frictional
force of 23.6 lb. Determine the work done.

SOLN:
W = Fs
W = (23.6 lb)(280 ft)
W = 6,608 ft·lb
Energy – the ability to do work

Kinetic Energy (KE) – energy possessed by a body by

virtue of its motion or velocity
KE = ½ m v2

Potential Energy (PE) – energy that a body possesses

because of its position or configuration
PE = mgz
where: z = distance above a datum

Total External Energy – the sum of its kinetic and

internal energies
Law of Conservation of Energy (First Law of
Thermodynamics) – The amount of energy in any
thermodynamic system is constant.

• Energy is stored work. In all cases, the energy stored

is equal to the work done.

• Whereas energy can be classified as being either

kinetic or potential, energy may appear in any one of
a number of different forms, such as mechanical
energy, electrical energy, chemical energy, heat
energy, and so forth and is readily converted from
one form to another.
PROB: Determine the total external energy per pound
of water flowing at a rate of 50 fps on a raceway
located 200 ft above a reference datum.
SOLN:
v = 50 ft/s z = 200 ft m = 1 lbm

ET = KE + PE
1 2
ET  mv  mgz
2
2
1  lb f  s s  ft   ft  lb f  s s 
E T  1lb m   50   1lb m  32.2 2  200ft 
2  32.2lb m  ft  s   s  32.2lb m  ft 
ET = 238.83 ft·lb
Heat – energy in transit from one body to another as the
result of a temperature difference between the two
bodies
Temperature – a measure of the level of the thermal
pressure of a body.
- A high temperature indicates a high level of thermal
pressure, and the body is said to be hot.
Thermometer – Its operation depends upon the property of
a liquid to expand or contract as its temperature is
increased or decreased, respectively.
- Because of their low freezing temperatures and relatively
constant coefficients of expansion, alcohol and mercury
are the liquids most frequently used in thermometers.
 Fahrenheit scale – named
after German physicist
Daniel Gabriel
Fahrenheit (1686-1736)
Tc TF
Celsius – named after
Swedish astronomer
Anders Celsius (1701-
1744)
- Previously called as
centigrade temperature
scale before being
renamed
 TC  0 TF  32

100  0 212  32
TC TF  32

100 180
100
TC  TF  32 
180
5 9
Tc  TF  32  TF  Tc  32
9 5
TK = Tc + 273 TR = TF + 460

Absolute Temperature – measured from the true or

absolute zero of the temperature (-273OC)
PROB: Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers are both
immersed in a fluid and indicate identical numerical
readings. What is the temperature of the fluid
expressed as R and K?
SOLN:
5 5
TC  TF  32  T  T  32 
9 9
9T  5 T  32 
9T  5T  160
T  TC  TF   40 O
TK = Tc + 273 = -40 + 273 = 233 K
TR = TF + 460 = -40 + 460 = 420 R
 • It is assumed that
the molecules that
make up a substance
are held together by
forces of mutual
attraction known as
cohesion.

• The molecules are further assumed to be in a

state of rapid and constant motion or vibration.
Internal Energy – results from the velocity
and position or configuration of the
molecules that make up the body.

U=K+P

where: U = total internal energy

K = internal kinetic energy
P = internal potential energy
Internal Kinetic Energy – or sensible heat;
energy of molecular motion or velocity
- The temperature of a body is an index of
the average velocity of the molecules that
make up the body.
- According to the kinetic theory, if the loss
of energy from a body continues until the
kinetic energy is reduced to zero, the
temperature of the body would drop to
absolute zero.
Sensible Heat – heat energy that causes or
accompanies a change in the temperature of the
substance

Q = mc(T2 – T1)

Specific Heat (c) – the quantity of energy required to

change the temperature of 1 kg mass by 1OC.

Specific heat of water: 4.19 kJ/kg·K

Specific heat of ice: 2.095 kJ/kg·K
Internal Potential Energy – or latent heat;
the energy of molecular separation or
configuration, or the energy that results
from the molecules’ position to one
another
- Internal work must be done in order to
further separate the molecules against
the attractive forces.
- The greater the degree of molecular
separation, the greater is the internal
potential energy.
Latent Heat – heat energy that causes a change in the
phase of the substance

Latent Heat of Fusion – change of phase that occurs is

between the solid and liquid phases in either
direction.
QL = mhif where: h if = latent heat of fusion

Latent Heat of Vaporization – change of phase that

occurs is between the liquid and vapor phases in
either direction.
QL = mhfg where: h fg = latent heat of fusion
The capacity of a substance to absorb energy while
undergoing a change from the liquid to the vapor
phase is enormous, many times greater even than
its capacity to absorb energy in passing from the
solid phase to the liquid phase.

For water:
• Latent heat of fusion at 32OF (0OC): 144 Btu/lb,
or 335 kJ/kg
• Latent heat of vaporization at 212OF (100OC):
970 Btu/lb, or 2257 kJ/kg
PROB: Twenty kilograms of water at 65OC are supplied with
5,000 kJ of heat energy. What mass of the water will be
evaporated?

SOLN:

mT = 20 kg T1 = 65OC T2 = 100OC QT = 5,000 kJ

QT = sensible heat (QS) + latent heat (QL)

QT = mTc(T2 – T1)
+ mhfg
5,000 kJ = (20 kg)(4.19 kJ/kg·K)(100 – 65 K) + (m)(2,257 kJ/kg)
5,000 kJ = 2,933 kJ + (m)(2,257 kJ/kg)

m = 0.9158 kJ
HEAT TRANSFER
Quiz
1. temperature of the iron block decreases from 85c to 25c. if the
mass of the block is 1.2 kg, calculate the heat lost by the block.
(ciron = 0.115cal / g. c)
2. Find the final temperature of the mixture, if two cup of water
having masses m1=150g and m2=250g and temperatures t1=30c
and t2= 75c are mixed in an isolated system in which there is no
heat lost. (cwater= 1cal /g. c)
Heat – always transferred from the high-temperature
region to the low temperature transferred from one
body (the hotter body) to another (the colder body)
by virtue of the temperature difference existing
between them
Modes of Heat Transfer:

a. Conduction – it may be (a) heat flow from a high-

temperature region to a lower-temperature region
within a body, or (b) heat transfer between two
bodies through their boundaries.
b. Convection – heat transfer by moving masses
of a fluid
c. Radiation – heat transfer without necessarily
warming the medium within the space
CONDUCTION
Factors Affecting Heat Flow Between Two Points:
a.Thermal Conductivity (k) – the ability of a material
to transfer heat
- only for homogeneous materials
- determines the quantity of heat passing per unit
time per unit area at a temperature drop of unit
per unit length
• Thermal Resistance (R) – reciprocal of conductance
and/or conductivity
• Common units:
kcal  m Btu  in
hr  m2 O C hr  ft 2 O F
b. The area of the conductor perpendicular to the
path of flow.

c. Temperature Gradient – rate of change of

temperature with change in distance

Fourier’s Law for Conduction:

dT
Q  kA
dx
Assumptions:

a. Steady state flow of heat takes place. Steady state

condition: If the amount of heat flowing into a body
is exactly equal to the heat flowing out.
b. Thermal conductivity remains constant and does
not vary with temperature.
c. No heat flow takes place along y- and z-
coordinates. It takes place only along x-coordinate
(unidirectional).
d. The surfaces at x1 and x2 are isothermal at t1 and t2,
respectively.
 Different Forms of Conduction
Conduction through a plane homogeneous wall

dT
Q  kA
dx
dT
 
R

x
R
kA
PROB:

The interior wall of a furnace is maintained at a

temperature of 900OC. The wall is 60 cm thick, 1
m wide, 1.5 m broad of material whose thermal
conductivity is 0.26 kcal/hr·m· OC. The
temperature of the outside surface of the wall
is 200 OC. Determine the heat loss through the
wall. Also determine the thermal resistance to
heat flow.
SOLN:
x = 60 cm = 0.6 m

T1 = 900OC T2 = 200OC

Q
k = 0.26 kcal/hr·m· OC
A = (1 m)(1.5 m) = 1.5 m2
SOLN:

x (0.60 m)
R  
kA  
0.26 kcal/hr  m  C 1.5 m
O 2

R  1.54 hr  C/kcal
O

Q  
dT
 
200  900 C 
O

R 1.54 hr  C/kcal
O

Q  454.55 kcal/hr
Conduction through a flat composite wall
(slabs in SERIES)
 dT 1 x
Q   R 
R A k
Conduction through a flat composite wall
(slabs in PARALLEL)

dT
Q  
R
x
R
 kA
PROB:
A cold room has one of the walls 5 m x 2.5 m
made of bricks 12 cm thick insulated externally
by cork slabbing 8 cm thick. Cork is protected
externally by 2.5 cm wood. Estimate the heat
infiltration through the wall in 24 hours, if the
interior of the cold room is maintained at a
temperature of 0 OC and the outside temperature
is 20 OC. Thermal conductivities for brick, cork
and wood are 0.8, 0.038 and 0.15 kcal/m·hr· OC,
respectively.
SOLN:
x1 = 0.12m x2 = 0.08m x3 = 0.025m

T2 = 0OC T1 = 20OC

A = (5 m)(2.5 m)
= 12.5 m2

brick cork wood

k1 = 0.8 kcal/hr·m· OC k2 = 0.038 k3 = 0.13
 SOLN:
1 x  1   0.12 0.08 0.025 m 
R     2 
  
A k  12.5m   0.8 0.038 0.15 kcal/hr  m  C 
O

hr O C
R  0.1938
kcal

Q  
dT
 
0  20 C 
O
 103.22
kcal
R 0.1958 hr  C/kcal
O
hr
In 24 hrs,
 kcal 
Q   103.22  24 hr   2,477.36 kcal
 hr 
Conduction through a single-curved
wall (hollow cylinder)

1
1

dT 1  r2 
Q   R ln  
R 2π kL  r1 
Conduction through
composite cylinder

dT
Q  
R
  ri  
 ln   
1   ri - 1  
R
2π L 
 k 
i
 
 
Conduction through sphere

dT
Q  
R
r2  r1
R
4π kr1r2
PROB:
The temperature of the outside surface of a
double extra-strong bare steel pipe (ID = 6.87 in,
OD = 8.625 in) is 600 OF while the temperature of
the inside surface is 605 OF. (a) What is the heat
loss per feet of pipe? (b)What will be the saving
in heat if the pipe is insulated with 3 in. of 85%
magnesia and the temperature of the outside
surface of the insulation is reduced to 200 OF. ksteel
= 26.56 Btu·ft/hr·ft 2· OF, and kmagnesia = 0.046
Btu·ft/hr·ft 2· OF.
SOLN:

R1 = 6.87/2 = 3.435 in.

R2 = 8.625/2 = 4.3125 in
T1 = 605OF
T2 = 600OF
ksteel = 26.56 Btu·ft/hr·ft 2· OF
SOLN:
For single-curved wall:
1  r2  1  4.3125 in 
R  
ln    ln  
2π kL  r1  2π (26.56 Btu  ft/hr  ft  F)  3.435 in 
2 O

hr  ft O F
R  1.3632 x 10 3
Btu

Q  
dT
 
600 - 605 FO

R 1.3623 x 10 - 3 hr  ft O F/Btu

Btu
Q  3,667.71
hr  ft
SOLN:

R1 = 6.87/2 = 3.435 in.

R2 = 8.625/2 = 4.3125 in
R3 = 4.3125 + 3 = 7.3125 in
T1 = 605OF
T2 = 200OF
ksteel = 26.56 Btu·ft/hr·ft 2· OF
kmag = 0.046 Btu·ft/hr·ft 2· OF
R3

T2
SOLN:
For concentric cylinders:
  ri     4.3125   7.3125  
 ln    1  ln   ln  
1 
1  r
 i-1     3.435   4.3125 
R 
2π L 
 ki 

2π  26.56
 
0.046 Btu  ft/hr  ft  F 
2 O

   
 
hr  ft O F
R  1.8284
Btu

Q  
dT
 

200 - 605 O F

221.50
Btu
R 1.8284 hr  ft O F/Btu hr  ft

Savings = 3667.71 – 221.50 = 3,446.21 Btu/hr·ft

RADIATION
- heat transfer without necessarily warming
the medium within the space
- operates by virtue of a wave motion in a
manner very similar to light radiation
- takes place by means of electromagnetic
waves that are emitted by atoms and
molecules due to changes in their energy
content
- may take place through a vacuum, through
some gases, and through a few liquids
INCIDENT (Qi) REFLECTED
(Qr)
ABSORBED (Qa)
Qi = Qa + Qr + Qt
1=α+ρ+τ
TRANSMITTED (Qt)

Absorptivity (α) - is the fraction of the total incident radiant

energy absorbed from the surface of a body
Reflectivity (ρ) – is the fraction of the total incident radiant
energy reflected from the surface of a body
Transmissivity (τ) - is the fraction of the total incident radiant
energy transmitted from the surface of a body
Bodies are classified:
Black body – this body absorbs all the radiations
α=1
White body – this body reflects all the radiations
ρ=1
Transparent or Diathermenous body – transmits all
the radiations τ=1
Opaque body – does not transmit any radiation. It
reflects and absorbs.
α+ρ=1
 dT 1
Q   R
R hr A
hr = radiation heat transfer coefficient
= film coefficient for radiation
= σ Fe FA (T12 + T22)(T1 + T2)

where: T = temperature
A = area of the radiating body
Fe = interchange factor
FA = shape facto
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.669 x 10-8 W/m2 · K4
= 0.174 x 10-8 Btu/ft2 · hr · OF4
= 4.97 x 10-8 kcal/hr · m2 · K4
CONVECTION
– heat transfer by moving masses of a fluid

Newton-Rikhman Law:

dT
Q  
R
1
R
hc A
hc = convective heat transfer coefficient
OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER
Q = Qconduction + Qradiation + Qconvection

For composite flat wall:

1 a ab bc c 2

h1C h2C
h1R h2R
Q  AUdT
dT 1
Q   R
R AU

U = overall thermal conductance

1 1 x
 
U h k
For composite cylinder:

dT
Q  
R
1 1 ln (ro /ro -1 ) 1
R   
U hi A i 2π kL ho A o

1  1 ln (ro /ro -1 ) 1 
R    
2π L  hi ri k ho ro 
PROB: A flat composite plate is made of two layers of
aluminum and steel of 5 cm and 2 cm thickness,
respectively. The thermal conductivities of aluminum
and steel are 175 kcal/m·hr· OC and 39 kcal/m·hr· OC,
respectively. The hot surface of aluminum side is in
contact with hot liquid at 200OC, the heat transfer of
liquid film being 12 kcal/m2·hr· OC. The cold surface of
steel side is in contact with liquid at 25OC, the heat
transfer coefficient of liquid film being 25 kcal/m2·hr·
O
C. Determine the (a) overall coefficient of heat
transfer, and (b) the heat transfer rate from hot liquid
to cold liquid through surface area of 10 m2.
SOLN:
h1 = 12 kcal/m2·hr· OC
T1 = 200OC

xalum = 5 cm = 0.05 m
kalum = 175 kcal/m·hr· CO

xsteel = 2 cm = 0.02 m
ksteel = 39 kcal/m·hr· OC

T2 = 25OC
h2 = 25 kcal/m2·hr· OC
SOLN:
a. Overall heat transfer coefficient, U
1 1 x  1  x alum  x steel  1
 
U h k h1 k alum k steel h2

1 1 0.05 m
 
U 12 kcal/m ·hr· C 175 kcal/m·hr· O C
2 O

0.02 m 1
 
39 kcal/m·hr· C 25 kcal/m2 ·hr· O C
O

U = 8.0559 kcal/m2·hr· OC
b. Heat transfer rate, Q

dT 1
Q   R
R AU

1
R  0.0124 hr· O
C/kcal
10 m 
2 2 O
8.0559 kcal/m ·hr· C 
Q  
25 - 200 C 
O

0.0124 hr· O C/kcal

Q = 14,097.91 kcal/hr
PSYCHROMETRICS
Psychrometrics – is the study of the properties of air. It
literally means “pertaining to the measurement of
cold”. In modern usage, it is the state of the
atmosphere with reference to moisture.

Atmosphere – or air, is a mechanical mixture of gases and

water vapor, particularly dry air and water vapor. The
dry air is composed of approximately 78% nitrogen,
21% oxygen, and 1% trace elements like hydrogen,
helium, neon, argon, etc. Water vapor composed 1 - 3%
by mass of the atmosphere depending on the locality
and the weather conditions.
Dalton’s Law on Partial Pressure – laid the foundation
of psychrometrics. It is based on the principles that:

P = P A + PH

where:
PA = partial pressure of dry air
PH = partial pressure of water vapor
P = total barometric pressure of mixture
PSYCHROMETRIC
PROPERTIES OF AIR

Dry Bulb Temperature (DB) – is the actual

temperature of the air and is an index of the
sensible heat of air.
- the temperature of a gas or mixture of gases
indicated and measured by an ordinary
thermometer after correction for radiation and
is unaffected by humidity.
Dew Point Temperature (DP) – is the temperature at which the water vapor
in the air is saturated and is the index of latent heat of vaporization.

• is the temperature at which the water vapor in the air is saturated and is
the index of latent heat of vaporization.

• - it is the temperature at which the condensation of water vapor begins

(100% RH) for a given state of humidity and pressure as the temperature
of the vapor is reduced.

• - it also determines the amount (mass) of water vapor in the air.

Wet Bulb Temperature (WB) – it is the temperature measured through
a wet-bulb thermometer and is the index of the total heat
(enthalpy) of the air.
- it is the temperature at which liquid or solid water, by evaporating
into air, can bring the air to saturation adiabatically, thus, it is also
called as the Temperature of Adiabatic Saturation
 *For any given Dry Bulb temperature, the lower the moisture content of
the air the lower is the Wet Bulb temperature.

Dry Bulb – Wet Bulb = Wet Bulb Depression

• For accurate measurement of Wet Bulb Temp:

1. The wetted cloth sac or wick enclosing the thermometer bulb must be
saturated with clean water at approximately the same dry bulb
temperature of air.
2. Swirl or rotate the instrument for at least 1 minute. This is to attain a
1000-2000 fpm wind velocity around the wick.
3. Take the reading after few seconds when the wick stabilizes after
evaporation
Relative Humidity (RH) – is the ratio of the actual
pressure of the water vapor in a space to the
saturation pressure of pure water at the same
temperature.

actual partial pressure by the water vapor

RH  x 100 %
partial pressure at saturation
actual vapor density
 x 100 %
vapor density at saturation
vapor mass
 x 100 %
mass at saturation
PH

PS
Humidity Ratio (HR or ω) – is the mass of water vapor
per unit mass of dry air; it is also called specific
humidity and is a function of dry bulb temperature
- It is measured in terms of kgwv/kgda, lbwv/lbda or
grains/lb, where 1 lbwv = 7000 grains.
0.622 PH 0.622 PS
H  S 
P  PH P  PS
where: wH = humidity ratio of water vapor, lb/lb
ws = humidity ratio at saturation, lb/lb
P = barometric pressure of mixture, 14.7 psia
PH = partial pressure of vapor, psia
Ps = saturation pressure, psia
Example
Given:
Ps at 20 C = 2333 Pa 0.622 PS
S 
P = 101.3 kPa P  PS

= 0.622(2333Pa)/(101325Pa-2333Pa) = 0.0147 kg/kg

Absolute Humidity (ρV) – mass of water vapor per unit volume
of air and is the expression of vapor density; reciprocal of
specific volume

Saturation Ratio – ratio of the mass of water vapor in the air

per unit mass of dry air to the mass of water vapor
required for saturation of the same air sample at the same
temperature.

ωH  P  PS   ωH 
Φ     RH   RH   1  RH 
ωS  P  PH   0.622 
Prob
Heat Content

Total Heat (function of WB) = Sensible Heat

(function of DB) + Latent Heat (function of DP)

Sensible Heat – is the enthalpy of dry air and is a

function of DB temperature. It is also called as
specific enthalpy.
hs = cpda (DB) = 0.24 DB
Total Sensible Heat: Hs = mhs
Qs = m (ΔHs) = m (hs) = mcp (ΔT)
Latent Heat - is the enthalpy component which is a
function of DP temperature. It depends on the mass of
the latent heat of vaporization of water corresponding
to the saturation temperature of the water vapor.
hL = ω(hw) = w [1060.8 + 0.45 (DB)]
Total Latent Heat: HL = m(hL) = m(ω)(hw)

where: HL = latent heat

m = mass of dry air
w = humidity ratio
hw = specific humidity of water vapor in the air
True Enthalpy = enthalpy at saturation + enthalpy deviation
Enthalpy Deviation = difference between the actual (partial saturation)
or true specific enthalpy of the air at any given condition and the
specific enthalpy of air at the given wet-bulb temperature.
Total Heat of Air – a function of wet-bulb temperature
hT = hs + hL
HT = m(hs + hL)
Standard Air – air at 70oF and at standard barometric pressure,
with ρ = 0.075 lb/ft3.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Lexington, Kentucky USA 210
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE 28.874 inches of Mercury

200

190

180

170

160

150

HUMIDITY RATIO - GRAINS OF MOISTURE PER POUND OF DRY AIR

140

130

120

110

Staturation Line
100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120

Linric Company Psychrometric Chart, www.linric.com DRY BULB TEMPERATURE - °F

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Lexington, Kentucky USA 210
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE 28.874 inches of Mercury

200

190

180

170

160

150

HUMIDITY RATIO - GRAINS OF MOISTURE PER POUND OF DRY AIR

140

130

Constant Dry Bulb Temperature 120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120

Linric Company Psychrometric Chart, www.linric.com DRY BULB TEMPERATURE - °F

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Lexington, Kentucky USA 210
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE 28.874 inches of Mercury

200

190

180

170

160

150

HUMIDITY RATIO - GRAINS OF MOISTURE PER POUND OF DRY AIR

140

130

Constant Humidity Ratio 120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120

Linric Company Psychrometric Chart, www.linric.com DRY BULB TEMPERATURE - °F

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Lexington, Kentucky USA 210
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE 28.874 inches of Mercury

200

190

180

170

160

150

HUMIDITY RATIO - GRAINS OF MOISTURE PER POUND OF DRY AIR

140

130

Constant Humidity Ratio 120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120

Linric Company Psychrometric Chart, www.linric.com DRY BULB TEMPERATURE - °F

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Lexington, Kentucky USA 210
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE 28.874 inches of Mercury

200

190

180

170

160

150

HUMIDITY RATIO - GRAINS OF MOISTURE PER POUND OF DRY AIR

140

130

Constant Relative Humidity 120

110

100

90

80

%
90
70

%
80
%
60

70
6 0%
50

%
50
40
%
40
30
30 %

20
20 %

UMID ITY
ATIVE H 10
10% REL

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120

Linric Company Psychrometric Chart, www.linric.com DRY BULB TEMPERATURE - °F

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Lexington, Kentucky USA 210
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE 28.874 inches of Mercury

200

190

180

170

160

150

HUMIDITY RATIO - GRAINS OF MOISTURE PER POUND OF DRY AIR

140

130

Constant Specific Volume 120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120

Linric Company Psychrometric Chart, www.linric.com DRY BULB TEMPERATURE - °F

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Lexington, Kentucky USA 210
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE 28.874 inches of Mercury

200

85
190

180

170

80
160

150

HUMIDITY RATIO - GRAINS OF MOISTURE PER POUND OF DRY AIR

Constant Web Bulb Temperature 75
140

130

120
70

110

100
65

90

60
80

70
55

60
50

50
45

40 40

35
30
30

25
20
20
15
10 10
5

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120

Linric Company Psychrometric Chart, www.linric.com DRY BULB TEMPERATURE - °F

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Lexington, Kentucky USA 210
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE 28.874 inches of Mercury

200

190

180

170

160

150

HUMIDITY RATIO - GRAINS OF MOISTURE PER POUND OF DRY AIR

Constant Enthalpy 140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120

Linric Company Psychrometric Chart, www.linric.com DRY BULB TEMPERATURE - °F

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Lexington, Kentucky USA 210
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE 28.874 inches of Mercury

200

85
190

180

170

80
160

150

HUMIDITY RATIO - GRAINS OF MOISTURE PER POUND OF DRY AIR

Constant Enthalpy 75
140

and 130

Constant Web Bulb 70

120

110

100
65

90

60
80

70
55

60
50

50
45

40 40

35
30
30

25
20
20
15
10 10
5

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120

Linric Company Psychrometric Chart, www.linric.com DRY BULB TEMPERATURE - °F

Processes Involving Air-Vapor Mixture

1. Mixing
2. Sensible Heating – occurs whenever the air is
passed over a heating surface such as steam or
hot water coil whose temperature is above the
DB temperature of the air.
3. Sensible Cooling – occurs when air passes across
a dry cooling surface whose temperature is below
DB temperature but above DP temperature
4. Cooling and Dehumification
1. MIXING
Applying Energy Balance:

m a1  m a 2  m a 3 ma1 h1  ma2 h2  ma3 h3

ma1 h1  ma 2 h2
h3 
ma 3
(m a1 )(T1 )  (m a2 )(T2 )
T3 
ma3

(m a1 )(ω1 )  (m a2 )(ω 2 )
Applying Moisture Balance: ω3 
ma3
PROB: Twenty pounds of air having a DB
temperature of 80OF and a humidity ratio of
0.010 lb/lb are mixed with 10 lb of air having
a DB temperature of 95OF and a humidity
ratio of 0.020 lb/lb. Determine the DB
temperature and humidity ratio of the
mixture.
b

a
SOLN: (m a1 )(T1 )  (m a2 )(T2 )
T3 
ma3
(20 lb)(80 F)  (10 lb)(95 F)
T3 
20  10 lb
T3 = 85OF

(m a1 )(ω1 )  (m a2 )(ω 2 )
ω3 
ma3
(20 lb) (0.010 lb/lb)  (10 lb)(0.020 lb/lb)
3 
20  10 lb
ω3 = 0.0133 lb/lb
What will be the dry-bulb
temperature of air at 100oF and
20% relative humidity if it is
saturated adiabatically to 90 %
relative humidity?
1. How much heat is required to raise the dry bulb temperature of 221
lb of saturated air from 10 C to 35 C?
2. Which air has the lower wet bulb temperature
A. DB = 90 F and RH = 30
B. DB = 80 and RH = 60
 TYPES OF REFRIGERATION
• A refrigeration system is a combination of components, equipment and piping connected in a
sequence to produce the refrigeration effect.

Types:

• Vapor compression refrigeration cycle – uses mechanical energy

• Vapor absorption refrigeration cycle – uses thermal energy
• Magnetic refrigeration – remove heat and maintain low temperature
• Industrial Refrigeration – used in cold storage

• Refrigeration Cycle: when a refrigerant undergoes a series of processes like evaporation,

compression, condensation, throttling and expansion, it is said to have undergone a refrigeration
cycle

141
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The basic components of a refrigeration system are:
- Evaporator
- Compressor
- Condenser
- Expansion Valve
- Refrigerant; to conduct the heat from the product

Basic Concepts in Refrigration 142

Evaporator
The purpose of the evaporator is to remove
unwanted heat from the product
Refrigerant contained within the evaporator is
boiling at a low-pressure. The level of this
pressure is determined by two factors:
- The rate at which the heat is absorbed from the product
to the liquid refrigerant in the evaporator
- The rate at which the low-pressure vapor is removed
from the evaporator by the compressor
When leaving the evaporator coil the liquid
refrigerant is in vapor form.

Basic Concepts in Refrigration 143

Compressor
• The purpose of the compressor is to draw the low-
temperature, low-pressure vapor from the
evaporator via the suction line.
• When vapor is compressed it rises in temperature.
• The compressor transforms the vapor from a low-
temperature vapor to a high-temperature vapor, in
turn increasing the pressure.

Basic Concepts in Refrigration 144

Condenser
• The purpose of the condenser is to extract heat from the
refrigerant to the outside air.
• Fans mounted above the condenser unit are used to draw
air through the condenser coils.
• The temperature of the high-pressure vapor determines
the temperature at which the condensation begins.
• As heat has to flow from the condenser to the air, the
condensation temperature must be higher than that of the
air.
• The high-pressure vapor within the condenser is then
cooled to the point where it becomes a liquid refrigerant
once more, whilst retaining some heat.

Basic Concepts in Refrigration 145

Expansion Valve
• The expansion valve is located at the end of the
liquid line, before the evaporator. The high-pressure
liquid reaches the expansion valve, having come
from the condenser.
• The valve then reduces the pressure of the
refrigerant as it passes through the orifice, which is
located inside the valve.
• On reducing the pressure, the temperature of the
refrigerant also decreases to a level below the
surrounding air.
• This low-pressure, low-temperature liquid is then
pumped in to the evaporator.

Basic Concepts in Refrigration 146

 Methods of Refrigeration

• There are different methods of refrigeration.

Among them:
• Solution (dissolution of salts in water) and
• Change of Phase
Are mostly used in the refrigeration processes

Basic Concepts in Refrigration 147

Solution (dissolution of Salts in water)
When certain salts such as NaCl or CaCl2 are dissolved
in water, they absorb heat

CaCl2 lowers the temperature of water up to -50oC

while NaCl up to -20oC

The salts used for refrigeration has to be regained by

evaporating the solution

The refrigeration produced is quite small compared to

the large amount of energy required in salt regaining
process
Basic Concepts in Refrigration 148
 Change of Phase
• If a substance such as ice is available, it is possible
to get refrigeration due to the change of phase
• Solid change to liquid, the cooling produced is:

Qs1=m1hsf
Where m1 is the rate of fission of ice &
h s f is the enthalpy of fission (340kj/kg)

Basic Concepts in Refrigration 149

• Refrigeration can be produced by change of phase from
solid to vapor-Sublimation. This occurs when the pressure
of the system is lower than the triple point pressure

Qc2=m2hsv
Where h s v is the enthalpy of sublimation
• Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) at one atmospheric pressure
produces about 570kJ/Kg of refrigeration maintaining it self
at a temperature of about -75 oC

Basic Concepts in Refrigration 150

• Refrigeration can be created due to the phase
transformation from liquid to vapor
Qc3=m3 (hg-h f)
=m3hfg

Basic Concepts in Refrigration 151

 Requirements of Refrigerant
• There are certain desirable characteristics which a fluid used as
a refrigerant should posses:
• non-poisonous
• Non-explosive
• Non-corrosive
• Non-inflammable
• Leaks should be easily detected
• Leaks should be easy to locate
• Should operate under low pressure
• Stable gas

Basic Concepts in Refrigration 152

 ◦Parts moving in the fluid should be easy to lubricate
◦Non- toxic
◦Well balanced enthalpy of evaporation per unit mass
◦Small relative displacement to obtain a certain
refrigerating effect
◦ A minimum difference between the vaporizing and
condensing pressure is desirable
The standard comparison of refrigerants as used in
refrigeration industry is based on an evaporator temperature
of -15oC and condensing temperature of 30oC

Basic Concepts in Refrigration 153

 Identification Refrigerant by Number
Refrigerant No Name and chemical formula
R-11 Trichloromonofluoromethane (CCl3F)
R-12 Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2)
R-22 Monochlorodifluoromethane (CHClF2)
R-500 Mixture of 73.8% R-12 and 26.2% R-152a
R-502 mixture of 48.8% R-22 and 51.2% R-115
R-717 Ammonia (NH3)
R-134a Tetrafluoroethane (CH2FCF3)

Formula generation C m H n F p Cl q
Designated by R-(m-1)(n+1)(P)
Basic Concepts in Refrigration 154
 Classification of Refrigerants
• The National Refrigeration Safety Code, USA (NRSC) catalogues
all the refrigerants into three groups. Some of these are:
• Group one – ( Safest of the refrigerants)
R-113, R-11, R-21, R-114, R-12, R-30, R-22, R-744, R-502, R-
13, R-14, R-500, R-134a
• Group two- (Toxic and somewhat Inflammable
Refrigerants)
R-1130, R-611, R-160, R-764, R-40, R-717
• Group Three- (inflammable Refrigerants)
R-600, R-290, R-170, R-1150, R-50

Basic Concepts in Refrigration 155

REFRIGERANTS
Refrigerant – is the substance employed as the heat
absorber or cooling agent
- is a medium of heat transfer which absorbs heat by
evaporating at a low temperature and gives up heat
by condensing at a high temperature and pressure.

Important properties of refrigerants:

a. High latent heat of vaporization
b. Smaller density or higher specific volume
c. High compression ratio
d. Specific heat of the refrigerant in both liquid and
vapor states
Safety Properties:

a. It should not contribute to the destruction of the

earth’s ozone layer.
b. It should not contribute to the increase in the
earth’s warming potential.
c. As much as possible, it should be nonflammable,
non-explosive, and non-toxic.
d. It should not react unfavorably with lubricating oil
or with any material used in the construction of
refrigerating equipment, or moisture.
e. It should not contaminate foodstuff or products in
case of leakage.
A. Primary Refrigerants – refrigerants used in vapor-
compression system.

1. Halocarbon Compounds – contain one or more of

the three halogens – chlorine, fluorine, and bromine

Most Common Fluorinated Hydrocarbons:

a. F – 11 Trichloromonofluoromethane
b. F – 12 Dichlorodifluoromethane
c. F – 13 Monochlorotrifluoromethane
d. F – 22 Monochlorodifluoromethane
e. F – 40 Methyl chloride
f. F – 113Trichlorotrifluoroethane
g. F – 114Dichlorotetrafluroethane
 2. Inorganic Compounds – ammonia, water, air, CO2, SO2
3. Hydrocarbons – used for petroleum and petrochemical
industry; e.g. methane, ethane, propane
4. Azeotropes – mixture of two refrigerants, the most
popular of which is R502, which is a mixture of 48.8%
F–22 and 51.2% R115.

B.Secondary Refrigerants – carries heat from the substance/

object being cooled to the evaporator of a refrigeration
system. These are anti-freeze solutions (solutions with
freezing temperature below 0OC)
- include brines and antifreezes
- e.g. ethylene glycol, propylene glycol (safe foods),
calcium chloride
Uses of some of the more common refrigerants:

1. Air – the principal use of the air as a refrigerant is

in the air-cycle refrigeration unit for aircraft.
Operating with air requires more work yet
lightweight.

2. Ammonia – the greatest use of ammonia is in

large industrial and low-temperature installations
such as frozen food and dairy plants
3. Carbon dioxide – its high horsepower
requirements and high condensing pressures
limited its use to the low –temperature cycle in a
cascade system.
- sometimes used for direct contact freezing (for
food)

4. Refrigerant 11 – the high value of volume flow per

ton with R11 makes it suitable for service in
centrifugal compressors. R11 and R113 are the
most-used refrigerants in centrifugal compressor
system.
5. Refrigerant 12 – this is the most widely used refrigerant. It
is used primarily with reciprocating compressors for
service in household refrigeration appliances, commercial
and industrial air conditioning, and in a multitude of other
types of refrigeration systems. R12 possesses desirable
properties, having convenient operating pressures, low
power requirement per ton, and is nontoxic and non
corrosive.

6. Refrigerant 22 - like R12, is nontoxic and has a low power

requirement per ton. R22 is competitive with refrigerant
12 in small air-conditioning units. It is competitive with
ammonia in industrial low-temperature system in cases
where toxicity of the refrigerant is of concern.
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

a. Vapor compression system

b. Multi-pressure system
c. Absorption refrigeration system
d. Thermo-electric system
e. Air-cycle refrigeration system
f. Steam-jet refrigeration system
 VAPOR
COMPRESSION
SYSTEM
 The Vapor Compression Refrigeration
(VCR) Cycle
Highly compressed fluids tend to get colder when allowed to
expand.

If pressure is high enough

-compressed air is hotter than source of cooling
-expanded gas is cooler than desired cold temperature
Refrigerator used for Cooling
energy sought Qin
E    COPC
energy that costs Wcycle
TH

Observation:  E may be >1 E  100% 

R
The concept of an efficiency being greater than 100%
makes people uneasy. Therefore, the conversion
TL efficiency for a refrigerator is called the Cooling
Coefficient of Performance (COPC). A refrigeration
system that is used for cooling is called a refrigerator.

167
Refrigerator used for Heating
energy sought Qout
E    COPH
energy that costs Wcycle
TH

Observation:  E may be >1 E  100% 

R
The concept of an efficiency being greater than 100%
makes people uneasy. Therefore, the conversion
TL efficiency for a refrigerator is called the Heating
Coefficient of Performance (COPH). A refrigeration
system that is used for cooling is called a heat pump.

168
Analysis of the Carnot Refrigerator
For the Refrigeration cycle …
Qin Qin 1
th  COPR   
Wcycle Qout  Qin Qout / Qin  1
TH
1 1 TL
COPR,Carnot   COPR,Carnot 
Qout / Qin rev  1 TH / TL  1 TH  TL

R For the Heat Pump cycle …

Qout Qout 1
th  COPH   
TL Wcycle Qout  Qin 1  Qin / Qout
1 1 TH
COPH,Carnot   COPH,Carnot 
1  Qin / Qout rev 1  TL / TH TH  TL

169
• Refrigeration cycle
• The cycle is operating in a refrigeration cycle
• The goal is to keep the cold space cold
• Transfer heat from a low-temperature source to the cycle

• Heat pump cycle

• The cycle is operating in a refrigeration cycle
• The goal is to keep the hot space hot
• Transfer heat to a high-temperature sink from the cycle

170
The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle

TH

R
TL

171
The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• Two phase changes
Working fluid = Refrigerant • Boiling (evaporator)
• Condensing (condenser)
• Low temperature boiling fluids

172
The Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

173
Vapor Compression Refrigeration Analysis
 m  h 2  h3 
Performance
Q in
COPC 
W c

 m  h 2  h1 
h3  h 4

 m  h1  h 4 

174
The Ideal VCR Cycle on the P-h Diagram
P
1-2: Isentropic compression
2-3: Isobaric heat rejection
3-4: Isenthalpic expansion
4-1: Isobaric heat addition
qout  Q out / m
3 2  m  h 2  h 3 

4 1
 m  h 2  h1 
qin  Q in / m wc  W c / m h3  h 4

 m  h1  h 4 

175
Refrigeration Effect and Capacity
Refrigeration Effect: qin  h1  h 4

Refrigeration Capacity: Q in  m  h1  h 4 

Refrigeration capacity is often expressed in tons of

refrigeration. Definition …

1 ton of refrigeration is the steady state heat transfer rate

required to melt 1 ton of ice at 32°F in 24 hours.

1 ton = 12,000 Btu/hr = 3.516 kW

176
VCR Cycle Irreversibilities
P

2s
Pressure drop through 2
the condenser 3
Isentropic efficiency
Pressure drop through 4 of the compressor
the evaporator 1

177
Practical VCR Cycle
P T3 SCT SCT = Saturated Condensing Temperature
DSC = Degrees of Subcooling = SCT – T3

Subcooling increases the

2s 2 refrigeration capacity
3

Superheating provides a dry

vapor at the compressor inlet
1
4

SET = Saturated Evaporating Temperature

T1
DSH = Degrees of Superheat = T1 – SET
SET
h

178
A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle:
1) condensing coil 2) expansion valve
3) evaporator coil 4) compressor
 1

3 Discharge Receiver tank

service valve
valve
5

Suction
7
service
valve 4

Flow diagram of simple vapor compression system showing the

principal parts
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A
VPC SYSTEM
1. Expansion valve – or back
pressure valve; meters the
proper amount of liquid
refrigerant entering the
evaporator, and reduces its
pressure and temperature of
below the temperature of the
refrigerated space so that the
refrigerant will vaporize in the
evaporator at the desired low
temperature.
Purpose and types of expansion devices

Purpose
1. Reduce the pressure of the liquid refrigerant
2. Regulate the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator
Common types
3. Capillary tube
4. Superheat – controlled expansion valve
5. Float valve
6. Constant pressure expansion valve
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A
VPC SYSTEM

2. Evaporator – provides a heat transfer

surface through which heat can pass from
the refrigerated space or product into the
vaporizing refrigerant.
- Liquid vaporizes at a constant pressure
and temperature
- Classified as (a) shell type, (b) shelf type
, (c) wall type, and (d) fin type.
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A
VPC SYSTEM
Two main types of evaporator:
a. Flooded type – arranged with a tank or a surge
drum called accumulator located above the coil so
that the inside of the evaporator is full, or flooded
with refrigerant
b. Dry type – is not actually “dry” but has a refrigerant
control device that admits only enough liquid
refrigerant to be completely evaporated by the
time it reaches the outler of the coil. All refrigerant
leaves the coil in a dry state, that is, a dry vapor.
 1

3 Discharge Receiver tank

service valve
valve
5

Suction
7
service
valve 4

Flow diagram of simple vapor compression system showing the

principal parts
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A
VPC SYSTEM
3. Suction line – conveys the low-pressure vapor
from the evaporator to the suction inlet of the
compressor
- vapor pressure remains low while the
temperature is high
4. Compressor – removes the vapor from the
evaporator to the suction inlet of the
compressor.
- vapor pressure and temperature is raised
- (a) rotary, (b) centrifugal, (c) reciprocating
4 most common types of compressor
1. Reciprocating – workhorse of the refrigeration industry, from
fractional kW to hundreds of kW capacity
2. Rotary Screw – male rotor with four lobes drive the female rotor in
a stationary housing
3. Vane compressor – single- and multiple – vane types, mostly used
in domestic refrigerators, freezers and air conditioners and can also
be used as booster compressors
4. Centrifugal – by Willis Carrier(1920), dominant type compressor in
large installation, 200 – 10000kw
Ass. Draw and label the parts and differentiate the four compressors
 1

3 Discharge Receiver tank

service valve
valve
5

Suction
7
service
valve 4

Flow diagram of simple vapor compression system showing the

principal parts
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A
VPC SYSTEM
5. “Hot gas” or discharge line – delivers the high
pressure, high-temperature vapor from the
discharge of the compressor to the condenser.
6. Condenser – provides a heat transfer surface
through which heat passes from the hot
refrigerant vapor to the condensing medium.
- vapor condenses back into the liquid form
- temperature of refrigerant is reduced but
the pressure remains high
- (a) air-cooled, (b) water-cooled, (c)
evaporative
 1

3 Discharge Receiver tank

service valve
valve
5

Suction
7
service
valve 4

Flow diagram of simple vapor compression system showing the

principal parts
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A
VPC SYSTEM
7. Receiver tank – provides storage for the
condensed liquid so that a constant supply
of liquid is available to the evaporator as
needed.
- liquid vapor is at low temperature and
high pressure
8. Liquid line – carries the liquid refrigerant
from the receiver tank to the refrigerant
flow control.
Window Air Conditioner Parts
 VAPOR
COMPRESSION
CALCULATIONS
 Q
Low Pressure
Saturated Liquid
Gas (1) EVAPORATOR

EXPANSION
COMPRESSOR (2) (4) VALVE

High Pressure Gas (3) CONDENSER Saturated Liquid

Q
1. Refrigerants pick-up heat as it enters the evaporator (isobaric).
2. Compressor increases the pressure of the gas.
3. Condenser rejects heat (liquid is saturated).
4. Expansion valve decreases the temperature (adiabatic).
FACTORS AFFECTING THE
EFFICIENCY OF THE SYSTEM
1. Compression Process – compression of vapor in a
refrigeration compressor is usually assumed to be
adiabatic.
• Adiabatic: T and h increased proportionally
with the work (due to the vapor)
2. Discharge Temperature – the temperature at which
the vapor is discharged from the compressor.
• In Compressor: Discharge Temperature is usually
at superheated state and is greater than the
saturation temperature.
3. Condensing Temperature – temperature at which
the vapor condenses in the condenser
• At Condenser: Condensing temperature is
equal to the saturation temperature.
• Rate of vaporization is equal to the rate of
condensation and is known as the
Refrigerating Effect.

4. Condensing Pressure – saturation pressure

corresponding to the temperature of the liquid-
vapor mixture in the condenser.
5. Refrigerating Effect – quantity of heat that each
unit mass of refrigerant absorbs from the
refrigerated space.
• Ex. Ice melts at 32oC and absorbs 144
Btu/lb (Latent Heat of Fusion)

6. System Capacity – rate at which the refrigerating

system removes heat from the refrigerated
space
• Ex. A system with a capacity of 1 ton means
that it could melt a ton of ice in a 24-hour
period.
 Factors Affecting System Capacity:
• Mass of the refrigerant circulated per unit of time
• Refrigerating effect per unit of mass circulated

7. Coefficient of Performance (COP)

• It is a measure of the effectiveness of the
refrigerating equipment; and is the ratio of the
refrigeration load (BTU) to the net work supplied
(BTU)
Heat Abs orbed

Heat Equivalent or Net Work Supplied
T2 S 2  S1  T2
 
T1T2 S 2  S1  T1  T2
8. Superheating
– assures complete vaporization of all the liquid
before it enters the compressor

Effect:
a. Increases the specific volume of the suction
vapor and, thus, also the required compression
displacement per ton of refrigeration.

b. Increase the enthalpy of the vapor and, thus,

increasing the RE of the refrigerant.
 Superheating Q
Low Pressure
Saturated Liquid
Gas (1) EVAPORATOR

EXPANSION
COMPRESSOR (2) (4) VALVE

Subcooling

High Pressure Gas (3) CONDENSER Saturated Liquid

Q
1. Refrigerants pick-up heat as it enters the evaporator (isobaric).
2. Compressor increases the pressure of the gas.
3. Condenser rejects heat (liquid is saturated).
4. Expansion valve decreases the temperature (adiabatic). air
9. Subcooling
– increase the RE as well as reduces the volume
of gas flushed from the liquid refrigerant in
passage through expansion valve.

10. Volumetric Efficiency

– the ratio of the actual volume of gas drawn
into the compressor (at evaporation
temperature and pressure) on each stroke
to the piston displacement.
Amount of heat absorbed during evaporation (RE)
Qe = h2 – h1

Amount of heat rejected during condensation

Qc = h3 – h4
Quality of refrigerant at the end of expansion:
hg2  hf2
x
hfg2
Heat of vaporization: hx = hf + xhfg
Entropy: Sx = Sf + xSfg
Volume: V­x = Vf + xVfg

(x = quality, or amount of vapor)

Work at Compression
By Law of Conservation of Energy
Qc = Q e + W
W = Qc - Qe
= (h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1); h1 = h4
W = h3 – h2

Weight of Refrigerant Circulated (per minute)

amount of heat absorbed (Btu/m in  ton)
Wrc 
RE
200 lb
Wrc 
(h2  h1 ) m in  ton
Theoretical Piston Displacement (per ton-min of
refrigerant)
- weight of refrigerant circulated multiplied by the
specific volume of the refrigerant at its entrance to
the compressor
3
PD 
200
Vg2  ft
(h2  h1 ) ton  m in
PD
TPD 
no. of cylinders
Theoretical Horsepower (per ton of refrigerant) – power
theoretically required to compress the refrigerant

For Isentropic Compression:

P  200
h3  h2  Btu
h2  h1  m in  ton
 h3  h2  hp
 4.717  
 h2  h1  ton

(the heat equivalent of compression work)

Coefficient of Performance
heat absorbed in evaporator
COP 
heat eq. of net work su pplied
h2  h1

h3  h2

Heat removed through the condenser

 heat absorbed from the work of compression

 200
h3  h4  Btu
h2  h1  m in  ton
Problem 1.
A standard vcr cycle developing 50 kW of refrigeration using refrigerant
22 operates with a condensing temperature of 35 C and an evaporating
temperature of -10 C. Calculate the following:
a. Refrigerating effect(KJ/Kg)
b. Circulation rate of refrigerant, Kg/s
c. Power Required by compressor, Kw
d. COP
e. Volume flow rate at compressor suction
f. Compressor Power per KW of refrigeration
PROB: A cold storage facility has a total cooling load of
20 tons. Ammonia (NH3) is used as the refrigerant.
The evaporator temperature is -20OF (h = 605.0
Btu/lb) and that of the condenser is 72OF (122.8
Btu/lb). The refrigeration system uses a four-cylinder,
single acting compressor and the enthalpy at the end
of compression is 736.6 Btu/lb. Evaluate the
following:
a. Refrigerating effect;
b. Mass of refrigerant circulated per minute;
c. Theoretical power in hp;
d. Coefficient of performance.
h1 = h4 = 122.8 Btu/lb h2 = 605.0 Btu/lb h3 = 736.6 Btu/lb
SOLN:
a. Refrigerating effect
Qe = h2 – h1
Qe = 605.0 – 122.8 Btu/lb
Qe = 482.2 Btu/lb

b. Mass of refrigerant circulated per minute

200 lb 200 lb
Wrc   20 tons 
(h2  h1 ) m in  ton (605.0  122.8) m in  ton
Wrc = 8.30 lb/min
SOLN:
c. Theoretical power
 h3  h2  hp
P  4.717  
h
 2  h1  ton
 736.6  605.0  hp
 4.717   (20 tons)
 605.0  122.8  ton
P = 25.75 hp

d. Coefficient of performance
h2  h1 605.0  122.8
COP  
h3  h2 736.6  605.0
COP = 3.67
COOLING LOAD
CALCULATIONS
COOLING LOAD

Cooling Load – refrigeration load or heating

load
- Is the rate at which heat must be removed
from refrigerated space or material in
order to produce and maintain the
desired temperature conditions
- Is the summation of the heat which
usually evolves from several different
sources
Factors Affecting Thermal Comfort:

1. Human heat loss – convection,

evaporation, radiation
2. Insulating factor – clothing
3. Physiological factor – activity, age, health
4. Environmental factor – air temperature,
surface temperature, air motion, relative
humidity
Cooling Loads for Commercial Refrigeration:

1. Wall Gain Load – or

wall leakage load;
measure of the heat flow
rate by conduction
through the walls of the
refrigerated space from
the outside to the inside
2. Air Change Load – heat which must be removed
from warm outside air to reduce its temperature
and moisture content to the space design
conditions

a. Ventilating Load – when the air changes in the

conditioned space are the result of deliberate
introduction of outside air into the space for
ventilating purposes
i. Outside air is taken in to dilute or reduce the
concentration of smoke, odors, carbon dioxide,
and other undesirable gases.
 ii. Certain products respire and continue to
mature even when placed in a refrigerator or
cold space.
iii. Oxygen (O2) should be brought in and CO2
eliminated.

2. Infiltration Load – used when the air changes are

the result of the natural infiltration of air into space
through cracks around doors and other openings
- results from three factors which are outside the
control of the designer: building construction,
chimney effects, and wind direction and velocity.
Stack effect is the
movement of air into
and out of buildings,
chimneys, or other
containers, resulting
from air buoyancy.
Buoyancy occurs due
to a difference in
indoor-to-outdoor air
density resulting
from temperature
and moisture
differences.
3. Product Load – made up of the heat that must be removed from
the refrigerated product in order to reduce the temperature of the
product to the desired level

4. Miscellaneous or Supplementary Loads – include people working

in or otherwise occupying the refrigerated space, along with lights or
other electrical equipment operating inside the space
Cooling Load Components:

A. Sensible Heat Gain

1. Heat transmission through the structure
2. Solar radiation
3. Infiltration or air leakage into the space
4. Ventilation air
5. Heat emission from occupants
6. Heat from electric lights
7. Heat extracted from materials or products brought
in at higher temperature than room temperature
8. Heat from other internal sources, such as motors
and chemical, mechanical, gas, steam, hot water,
electrical, or other appliances present.
B. Latent Heat Gain

1. Infiltration by air leakage and by vapor-

pressure difference
2. Ventilation air
3. Moisture from occupants
4. Moisture from other internal sources
such as wet surfaces and chemicals,
gas, steam, hot water, electrical or
other appliances
COOLING LOAD ITEMS

Effective Temperatures:

Homes = 73OF
Offices = 72OF
Stores = 71OF
RH = 30 – 70% (50% for comfort)
COOLING LOAD ITEMS
1. Heat Transmission:
Q = U(A)(ΔT) = U(A)(CLTD)
a. Walls
b. Doors
c. Roofs and ceilings
d. Floors
e. Interior Partitions
PROB: Find the sensible heat gain through a
wall adjacent to another room (78OF) made
from hard maple with U = 0.22 Btu/hr·ft2·OF.
The wall measures 20’x 15. Inside conditions
are 75OF dry bulb and 50% relative humidity.

SOLN:
Q = UA(ΔT)
Q = (0.22 Btu/hr·ft2·OF)(20ft)(15ft)(78-75OF)
Q = 198 Btu/hr
COOLING LOAD ITEMS
2. Solar Radiation:

Fenestration – is any light-transmitting opening in the

exterior skin of a building
- refers to any glared aperture in the building envelope
including glazing material, framing, and shading devices

Window – represents the largest source of unwanted heat

loss and heat gain in buildings
- satisfies human needs of visual communication with the
outside world, admit solar radiation to provide
supplement daylight, and enhance the exterior and
interior appearance of a building
For conduction:

Q = U(A)(ΔT) = U(A)(CLTD)

For combined convection and radiation:

Q = (A) (max SHGF) (SC) (CLF)

SHGF – solar heat gain factor (local altitude, date,

solar time, window orientation)
SC – shading coefficient (tint, drapes, rolls, blinds)
CLF – cooling load factor (time lag, etc)
PROB: Find the total heat load from a window
made from 3/16-in tinted glass with venetian
blinds. A = 60 ft2, U = 0.92 Btu/hr·ft2·OF, CLTD =
22OF, solar heat gain factor = 207 Btu/hr·ft2,
shading coefficient = 0.64, and cooling factor =
0.72.

SOLN:
For conduction:
Q = U(A)(CLTD)
Q = (0.92 Btu/hr·ft2·OF)(60 ft2)(22OF)
Q = 1,214.4 Btu/hr
SOLN:

For combined convection and radiation:

Q = (A) (max SHGF) (SC) (CLF)
Q = (60 ft2)(207 Btu/hr·ft2)(0.64)(0.72)
Q = 5,723.14 Btu/hr

Total Heat Load:

T = Qcon + Q conv+rad
T = 1,214.4 Btu/hr + 5,723.14 Btu/hr
T = 6,937.54 Btu/hr
COOLING LOAD ITEMS
3. Air Change Load:

For air-conditioned space:

Sensible: Q = (1.08) (CFM) (TO – Ti)

Latent: Q = (c) (CFM) (wO – wi)
Total: Q = (4.5) (CFM) (hO – hi)
hL  W  G G = wall factor
cfm  1 for room with one outside wall
60 1.5 for room with 2 outside room
2 for room with 3 or more outside wall
COOLING LOAD ITEMS
For refrigerated space:
Q = (room volume) (air change per 24 hours)
(air density) (hO – hi)

4. Occupants

Sensible: Q = (N) (SHG) (CLF)

Latent: Q = (N) (LHG)
PROB: The dimensions of a storage cooler in a hotel
kitchen are 15 ft x 20 ft X 10 ft, and usage is heavy
(equivalent to 9.5 air changes per 24 hr with 50%
additional heat). The inside is maintained at 32OF
and 85% relative humidity (h = 11.3 Btu/lb), while
the outside conditions are 75OF and 50% RH (h =
28.3 Btu/lb). Air density is 0.0751 lb/ft3. Calculate
the air change load.

SOLN:
Room dimensions = 15 ft x 20 ft X 10 ft
Air density = 0.0751 lb/ft3
SOLN:
Air changes: 9.5 24 hr with 50% additional heat
Inside conditions: Ti = 32OF , RHi = 85%,
hi = 11.3 Btu/lb
Outside conditions: T0 = 75OF , RHo = 50%,
ho = 28.3 Btu/lb

Q = (room volume) (air change per 24 hours)(air

density) (hO – hi)
Q = (15 ft)(20ft)(10ft)(9.5/24 hr)(1.50)(0.0751 lb/ft3)
(28.3 Btu/lb - 11.3 Btu/lb)
Q = 2,274.12 Btu/hr
COOLING LOAD ITEMS
5. Electric Lights

Q = (3.414) (W) (FUT) (FBF) (CLF)

W = wattage
FUT = Light Use Factor = 1.00
FBF = Fluorescent Ballast Factor = 1.25

6. Appliances

Q = (3.414) (W) (Fu) (Fr) (CLF)

W = installed wattage rating
Fu = Usage Factor
Fr = Radiation Factor
COOLING LOAD ITEMS
7. Product Load

 Chilling above freezing

 Freezing
 Cooling below freezing
 Product reaction or respiration heat

Chilling Factors:
1. The entering product temperature
2. The final product temperature desired
3. The maximum pounds of products that are to be
chilled at any one time
4. Chilling time
5. The specific heat of the product
 .
a. Chilling above freezing
(m) (c) (T1  T2 )
Q
(t) (CF)
where:
Q = heat gain
m = mass of product
c = specific heat of product ABOVE freezing
T = product and chilling temperatures
t = chilling time
CF = chilling factor, approximately 50 – 100%
PROB: Seventy-five hundred pounds of fresh lean beef
enter a chilling cooler at 102OF and are chilled to
45OF each day. For beef, c = 0.75 Btu/lb·OF with
chilling factor of 0.67. Compute the product load in
Btu per 24 hr.

SOLN:
(m) (c) (T1  T2 ) (7,500 lb) (0.75 Btu/lb O F) (102  45 O F)
Q 
(t) (CF) (24 hr) (0.67)

Q = 19,939.37 Btu/hr
b. Freezing Load

(m) x (h)
Q
t

where: Q = heat gain, Btu/hr

m = mass of product, lb
h = latent heat of fusion, Btu/lb
t = freezing time, hr
c. Cooling Load
(m) (c) (T1  T2 )
Q
(t)
where:
Q = heat gain
m = mass of product
c = specific heat of product below freezing
T = product and chilling temperatures
t = cooling time

d. Product Respiration
Q  (m) (respirati on heat)
 e. Load from Containers (chilling or
cooling load equation applies)

8. Miscellaneous Items: supply-duct heat

gain and air leakage, supply-fan power
input, pumps, etc.

9. Contingency: Add 10% to both total

sensible and latent heat.
PROB: Three thousand lug boxes of apples (c = 0.87
Btu/lb·OF) are stored at 35OF in a storage cooler. The
apples enter the cooler at a temperature of 75OF and
at a rate of 200 lug boxes per day for the 15-day
harvest period. The average weight of apples per lug
box is 59 pounds. The lug boxes have an average
weight of 4.5 pounds and a specific heat of 0.6
Btu/lb·OF. Calculate the product load if the
respiration heat of apple is 0.0225 Btu/hr·lb.

SOLN:
Mass of apples = (59 lb/box)(200 boxes) = 11,800 lb
Mass of boxes = (4.5 lb/box)(200 boxes) = 900 lb
SOLN:
specific heat of apple (c) = 0.87 Btu/lb·OF
specific heat of boxes (c) = 0.6o Btu/lb·OF
respiration = 0.0225 Btu/hr·lb
T1 = 75OF
T2 = 35OF

Total Heat = Qapple + Qrespiration + Qbox

(m) (c) (T1  T2 ) (11,800 lb) (0.87 Btu/lb  F) (75  35 F)

O O
Q apple  
(t) (24 hr)

Qapple = 17,110 Btu/hr

SOLN:
Q res  (m) (respirati on heat)  (11,800 lb) (0.0225 Btu/hr  lb)
Qapple = 265.50 Btu/hr

(m) (c) (T1  T2 ) (900 lb) (0.60 Btu/lb O F) (75  35 O F)

Q box  
(t) (24 hr)
Qbox = 900 Btu/hr

Total Heat = Qapple + Qrespiration + Qbox

Total Heat = 17,110 + 265.5 + 900 Btu/hr
Total Heat = 18,275.5 Btu/hr
Thank You!