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SETLecture 5

Here are the truth tables for the arguments: a) ¬q p→q ¬p T T T T F F F T F F F T This argument is invalid since there is a line where the premises are true and conclusion is false. b) p→q q→p p∨q T T T T F T F T T F F T This argument is valid since in every line where premises are true, conclusion is also true. So argument (a) is invalid and argument (b) is valid.

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Rezwan Ahmed Tuhin
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38 views

SETLecture 5

Here are the truth tables for the arguments: a) ¬q p→q ¬p T T T T F F F T F F F T This argument is invalid since there is a line where the premises are true and conclusion is false. b) p→q q→p p∨q T T T T F T F T T F F T This argument is valid since in every line where premises are true, conclusion is also true. So argument (a) is invalid and argument (b) is valid.

Uploaded by

Rezwan Ahmed Tuhin
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Discrete Mathematics

What is Set?

Set & Rule of inference – Lesson 5


October 23rd, 2013
A set is said to contain its elements.
A set is an unordered collection of objects, called
elements or members of the set.
{1, 2, 3} is the set containing “1” and “2” and “3.” list the
members between braces.
{1, 1, 2, 3, 3} = {1, 2, 3} since repetition is irrelevant.
{1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1} since sets are unordered.
{1,2,3, …, 99} is the set of positive integers less than 100
{1, 2, 3, …} is a way we denote an infinite set (in this
case, the natural numbers).
 = {} is the empty set, or the set containing no
elements.
Note:   {}
Some examples
 The set V of all vowels in the English
alphabet V = {a, e, i, o, u}.
 The set of positive integers less than 100
can be denoted by {1, 2, 3, . . . , 99}.
ellipses (. . .) are used when the general
pattern of the elements is obvious.
 {a, 2, Fred, New Jersey} is the set
containing the four elements a, 2, Fred,
and New Jersey.
Element of Set
 A set is an unordered collection of
objects referred to as elements.
 A set is said to contain its elements.
We write a ∈ A to denote that a is an
element of the set A.
 The notation a ∈ A denotes that a is
not an element of the set A.
Try Yourself
 Let A = {1, 3, { { 1,2}, ø},{ø } }. State
whether the following statements are
true or not. Give reason.
 {{1, 2},{ø } } ϵ A
 {1, 4,{ø } } ϵ A
ø ϵ A
Some Sets

N = {0,1,2,3,…}, the set of natural numbers, non negative integers,


(occasionally IN)

Z = { …, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,3, …), the set of integers

Z+ = {1,2,3,…} set of positive integers

Q = {p/q | p  Z, q Z, and q0}, set of rational numbers

R, the set of real numbers


R+, the set of positive real numbers
C, the set of complex numbers.
Set builder notation
 Another way to describe a set is to
use set builder notation.
 O = {x | x is an odd positive integer
less than 10}
 or, specifying the universe as the set
of positive integers, as
 O = {x ∈ Z+ | x is odd and x < 10}.
Empty Set
 There is a special set that has no elements. This set is
called the empty set,or null set, and is denoted by ∅. The
empty set can also be denoted by { }

Common error is to confuse the empty set ∅ with the set { ∅}


 The empty set can be thought of as an empty folder and the
set consisting of just the empty set can be thought of as a
folder with exactly one folder inside, namely, the empty
folder.
 Determine whether these statements are true or false.
 a) ∅ ∈ {∅} b) ∅ ∈ {∅, {∅}}
 c) {∅} ∈ {∅} d) {∅} ∈ {{∅}}
Subset
The set A is a subset of B if and only
if every element of A is also an
element of B. We use the notation
A ⊆ B to indicate that A is a subset of
the set B.
Ven diagram of Subset

B
A

Fig: A Is a Subset of B.
Try Yourself
 Let A = {1, 5, { { 1,2}, ø},{ø } }. State
whether the following statements are
true or not. Give reason.
 {1, 3, ø} ⊆ A
 {1, 5, ø} ⊆ A
{}⊆A
Proper subset
When we wish to emphasize that a
set A is a subset of a set B but that
A = B, we write A ⊂ B and say that A is
a proper subset of B.
∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B) ∧ ∃x(x ∈ B ∧ x ∈
A)
Try Yourself
A is the set of prime numbers less than 10 , B is the
set of odd numbers less than 10, C is the set of
even numbers less than 10.
How many of the following statements are true? Explain
 i. A ⊂B Is ∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B) ∧ ∃x(x ∈ B ∧ x ∈ A) true?
 ii. B ⊂ A
 iii. A ⊂ C
 iv. C ⊂ A
 v. B ⊂ C
 vi. C ⊂ A
 Prime numbers less than 10 are: 2,3,5,7
Set Theory - Definitions and notation

A few more:

Is {a}  {a}? Yes

Is {a}  {a,{a}}? Yes

Is {a}  {a,{a}}? Yes

Is {a}  {a}? No
Power set
 The power set of S is denoted by
P(S).
 The power set P({0, 1, 2}) is the set of all subsets of {0, 1,
2}. Hence,
 P({0, 1, 2}) = {∅, {0}, {1}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}, {0, 1, 2}}.
 Note that the empty set and the set itself are members of
this set of subsets.
Examples
If S is a set, then the power set of S is 2S = { x : x  S }.

If S = {a}, We say, “P(S) is


2S = {, {a}}.
the set of all
If S = {a,b}, 2S = {, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}. subsets of S.”
If S = , 2S = {}.
If S = {,{}}, 2S = {, {}, {{}}, {,{}}}.

Fact: if S is finite, |2S| = 2|S|. (if |S| = n, |2S| = 2n) Why?


Set Theory - Definitions and notation
Quick examples:
{1,2,3}  {1,2,3,4,5}
{1,2,3}  {1,2,3,4,5}

Is   {1,2,3}? Yes! x (x  )  (x  {1,2,3}) holds (for all


over empty domain)

Is   {1,2,3}? No!

Is   {,1,2,3}? Yes!

Is   {,1,2,3}? Yes!
Set operators
The union of two sets A and B is:
A  B = { x : x  A v x  B}
If A = {Charlie, Lucy, Linus}, and B = {Lucy, Desi},
then

A  B = {Charlie, Lucy, Linus, Desi}

B
A
Set Theory - Operators
The intersection of two sets A and B is:
A  B = { x : x  A  x  B}
If A = {Charlie, Lucy, Linus}, and B = {Lucy, Desi},
then

A  B = {Lucy}

B
A
Set Theory - Operators
The intersection of two sets A and B is:
A  B = { x : x  A  x  B}
If A = {x : x is a US president}, and B = {x : x is in this room}, then

A  B = {x : x is a US president in this room} = 

Sets whose
B
A intersection is
empty are called
disjoint sets

20
Set Theory - Operators
The complement of a set A is:

A = { x : x  A}

If A = {x : x is bored}, then

A = {x : x is not bored}

U
A = U
and
U=

I.e., A = U – A, where U is the universal set.


“A set fixed within the framework of a theory and consisting of all objects
considered in the theory. “
Try yourself
 (i) Identify the area ¬ R(x) ˄ I(x) ˄ ¬ M(x)
 Determine True or False: x R(x) ˄ M(x) ˄ I(x) → D(x)
Rules of Inference

 We can always use a truth table to


show that an argument form is valid.
We do this by showing that
whenever the premises are true, the
conclusion must also be true.
Example
 “If you have a current password, then you can log onto the
network.”
“You have a current password.”
 Therefore, “You can log onto the network.”
 We would like to determine whether this is a valid argument.
 That is, we would like to determine whether the conclusion “You
can log onto the network” must be true when the premises “If you
have a current password, then you can log onto the network” and
“You have a current password” are both true.
 Use p to represent “You have a current password” and q to
represent “You can log onto the network.”
 Then, the argument has the form
 p→q
p q p q
 p
 ∴q T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

 where ∴ is the symbol that denotes “therefore.” the


statement ((p → q) ∧ p) → q is a tautology
 This argument is valid because when (premises) p → q and p
are both true, then the (conclusion) q is true.
Try Yourself
 . Verify whether the following argument is valid or
not.
a) ￢ q
p→q
∴ ￢p
b) p → q
q→p
∴p˅q

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